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Zandsalimi F, Talaei S, Noormohammad Ahari M, Aghamiri S, Raee P, Roshanzamiri S, Yarian F, Bandehpour M, Zohrab Zadeh Z. Antimicrobial peptides: a promising strategy for lung cancer drug discovery? Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 15:1343-1354. [PMID: 32749935 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1791080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), also called host defense peptides (HDPs), are identified in almost any form of life, which play an important role in innate immune systems. They have a broad spectrum of antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, and anticancer activities. Lung cancer remains the leading cause of global cancer-related death. Unfortunately, lung cancer chemotherapy is accompanied by serious side effects, nonspecific toxicity, and multidrug resistance. Hence, to overcome these drawbacks, anticancer peptides (ACPs) derived from AMPs may represent a potential promising synergistic treatment strategy for lung cancer. AREAS COVERED In this review, the authors provide the recent advancements in the use of AMPs for the treatment of lung cancer. Furthermore, the anti-lung cancer modes of action of these peptides have been fully reviewed. Importantly, various strategies for increasing the efficiency and safety of AMPs have been discussed. EXPERT OPINION The combination of AMPs and other cancer treatment approaches such as chemotherapy, nanoparticle-based delivery systems, and photodynamic therapy can be used as a promising revolutionary strategy for the treatment of lung cancer. The most significant limitations of this strategy that need to be focused on are low efficiency and off-target events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farshid Zandsalimi
- Students' Scientific Research Center, Department of Molecular Medicine, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Sam Talaei
- School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Noormohammad Ahari
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Shahin Aghamiri
- Student Research Committee, Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran.,Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Pourya Raee
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Soheil Roshanzamiri
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Yarian
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran.,Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Mojgan Bandehpour
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran.,Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Zeinab Zohrab Zadeh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences , Ahvaz, Iran
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Cellular response to Trypanosoma cruzi infection induces secretion of defensin α-1, which damages the flagellum, neutralizes trypanosome motility, and inhibits infection. Infect Immun 2013; 81:4139-48. [PMID: 23980110 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01459-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human defensins play a fundamental role in the initiation of innate immune responses to some microbial pathogens. Here we show that colonic epithelial model HCT116 cells respond to Trypanosoma cruzi infection by secreting defensin α-1, which reduces infection. We also report the early effects of defensin α-1 on invasive trypomastigotes that involve damage of the flagellar structure to inhibit parasite motility and reduce cellular infection. Short exposure of defensin α-1 to trypomastigotes shows that defensin α-1 binds to the flagellum, resulting in flagellar membrane and axoneme alterations, followed by breaking of the flagellar membrane connected to the trypanosome body, leading to detachment and release of the parasite flagellum. In addition, defensin α-1 induces a significant reduction in parasite motility in a peptide concentration-dependent manner, which is abrogated by anti-defensin α-1 IgG. Preincubation of trypomastigotes with a concentration of defensin α-1 that inhibits 50% trypanosome motility significantly reduced cellular infection by 80%. Thus, human defensin α-1 is an innate immune molecule that is secreted by HCT116 cells in response to T. cruzi infection, inhibits T. cruzi motility, and plays an important role in reducing cellular infection. This is the first report showing a novel cellular innate immune response to a human parasite by secretion of defensin α-1, which neutralizes the motility of a human parasite to reduce cellular infection. The mode of activity of human defensin α-1 against T. cruzi and its function may provide insights for the development of new antiparasitic strategies.
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Glenthøj A, Glenthøj AJ, Borregaard N. ProHNPs are the principal α-defensins of human plasma. Eur J Clin Invest 2013; 43:836-43. [PMID: 23718714 DOI: 10.1111/eci.12114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human neutrophil peptides (HNPs) were discovered as abundant antimicrobial peptides of azurophil granules. Later studies revealed that most HNPs were produced by myelocytes and metamyelocytes and secreted into the bone marrow plasma as the inert proforms, proHNPs. Despite the vast amounts of proHNPs released into bone marrow plasma, little has been done to characterize these. Numerous studies have investigated HNPs in plasma, linking them to a variety of diseases, but without distinguishing between HNPs and their proforms. MATERIALS AND METHODS We used an antibody with specificity against the propiece of proHNPs to investigate proHNPs in plasma and tissue. RESULTS In contrast to previous studies using HNP antibodies, we found proHNPs to be many-fold more abundant than HNPs in plasma with a mean concentration of 2 μg/mL. The concentration was substantially higher in bone marrow plasma in accordance with the bone marrow being the site of origin of plasma proHNPs. ProHNPs were not bound to high molecular weight plasma proteins. Accordingly, proHNPs were filtered in the kidneys and resorbed in the proximal tubules. CONCLUSIONS Most HNPs in plasma are in fact proHNPs, which is important given the differences in their origin and biological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Glenthøj
- The Granulocyte Research Laboratory, Department of Hematology, National University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Fu LB, Yu JL, Liu WH. [Biological characteristics of defensin and its disease-resistance genetic engineering]. YI CHUAN = HEREDITAS 2011; 33:512-519. [PMID: 21586398 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1005.2011.00512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Defensin is a kind of cysteine-rich small peptide, which has a broad spectrum of resistance to bacteria with a special resistance mechanism. So far, a large number of studies on defensins have been reported, and the different types of defensins have been isolated from various organisms. A broad prospect of application on defensins has been displayed both in genetic engineering and medicine field. This article reviewed the classification and the biological characteristics of defensins, including mammalian α-, β-, θ-defensins, insect defensins, and plant defensins. The molecular structures, antibacterial activities, and antibacterial mechanisms of these definsins were summarized. The two mechanisms of de-fensin, including independent membrane mechanism and targeting of intracellular compounds by defensins, are ex-pounded. This paper also summarized the researches on isolation and expression of defensin genes and disease resistance genetic engineering of mammal and plant defensins. A prospect of the future applications of defensin both in biophar-maceutical sciences and plant disease resistance genetic engineering was discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan-Bao Fu
- 1. The State Key Laboratory for Agro-biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Madison MN, Kleshchenko YY, Nde PN, Simmons KJ, Lima MF, Villalta F. Human defensin alpha-1 causes Trypanosoma cruzi membrane pore formation and induces DNA fragmentation, which leads to trypanosome destruction. Infect Immun 2007; 75:4780-91. [PMID: 17635867 PMCID: PMC2044533 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00557-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human defensins play a fundamental role in the initiation of innate immune responses to some microbial pathogens. Here we show that human defensin alpha-1 displays a trypanocidal role against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease. The toxicity of human defensin alpha-1 against T. cruzi is mediated by membrane pore formation and the induction of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA fragmentation, leading to trypanosome destruction. Exposure of trypomastigote and amastigote forms of T. cruzi to defensin alpha-1 significantly reduced parasite viability in a peptide concentration-dependent and saturable manner. The toxicity of defensin alpha-1 against T. cruzi is blocked by anti-defensin alpha-1 immunoglobulin G. Electron microscopic analysis of trypomastigotes exposed to defensin alpha-1 revealed pore formation in the cellular and flagellar membranes, membrane disorganization, and blebbing as well as cytoplasmic vacuolization. Furthermore, human defensin alpha-1 enters the trypanosome when membrane pores are present and is associated with later intracellular damage. Trypanosome membrane depolarization abolished the toxicity of defensin alpha-1 against the parasite. Preincubation of trypomastigotes with defensin alpha-1 followed by exposure to human epithelial cells significantly reduced T. cruzi infection in these cells. Thus, human defensin alpha-1 is an innate immune molecule that causes severe toxicity to T. cruzi and plays an important role in reducing cellular infection. This is the first report showing that human defensin alpha-1 causes membrane pore formation in a human parasite, leading to trypanosome destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nia Madison
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immune Response, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA
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Molina H, Bunkenborg J, Reddy GH, Muthusamy B, Scheel PJ, Pandey A. A Proteomic Analysis of Human Hemodialysis Fluid. Mol Cell Proteomics 2005; 4:637-50. [PMID: 15723814 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m500042-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The vascular compartment is an easily accessible compartment that provides an opportunity to measure analytes for diagnostic, prognostic, or therapeutic indications. Both serum and plasma have been analyzed extensively by proteomic approaches in an effort to catalog all proteins and polypeptides. Limitations of such approaches in obtaining a comprehensive catalog of proteins include the fact that a handful of proteins constitute over 90% of plasma protein content and that the renal glomeruli filter out proteins and polypeptides that are smaller than 66 kDa from blood. We chose to study hemodialysis fluid because it contains a higher concentration of small proteins and polypeptides and is also simultaneously depleted of the most abundant proteins present in blood. Using gel electrophoresis in combination with LC-MS/MS, we identified 292 proteins of which greater than 70% had not been previously identified from serum or plasma. More than half of the proteins identified from the hemodialysis fluid were smaller than 40 kDa. We also found 50 N-terminally acetylated peptides that allowed us to unambiguously map the N termini of mature forms of the corresponding proteins. Several identified proteins, including cytokines, were only present as predicted transcripts in data bases and thus represent novel proteins. The proteins identified in this study could serve as biomarkers in serum using more sensitive methods such as ELISA-specific antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Molina
- McKusick-Nathans Institute for Genetic Medicine and Department of Biological Chemistry and Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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Ashitani JI, Mukae H, Arimura Y, Sano A, Tokojima M, Nakazato M. High concentrations of alpha-defensins in plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Life Sci 2004; 75:1123-34. [PMID: 15207659 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2004.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2003] [Accepted: 02/25/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
alpha-Defensins, antimicrobial peptides localized in neutrophils, participate in tissue damage through their cytotoxic effects in neutrophil-mediated pulmonary diseases. Neutrophils play an important role in the pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). We measured alpha-defensins levels in plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of ARDS patients to assess the kinetics of alpha-defensins in ARDS. Plasma alpha-defensins levels were higher in ARDS patients than in control subjects, and BALF levels were also higher in ARDS patients than in control subjects. In ARDS, BALF alpha-defensins levels correlated with those of interleukin (IL)-8, and plasma alpha-defensins levels also correlated with Lung Injury Score. Peripheral neutrophil alpha-defensins contents were higher in ARDS than the control. IL-8 dose-dependently stimulated alpha-defensins release from cultured neutrophils and these levels were higher in ARDS than the control. Reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography showed high plasma levels of pro-defensins, precursors of alpha-defensins from the bone marrow in ARDS, although alpha-defensins in peripheral and BALF neutrophils were mature type. In conclusion, high plasma alpha-defensins in ARDS patients result from the release of pro-defensins from bone marrow, rather than mature alpha-defensins from neutrophils that accumulate in the alveolar space. The alpha-defensins contents of peripheral neutrophils in ARDS are higher and easier to release than control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ichi Ashitani
- The Third Department of Internal Medicine, Miyazaki Medical College, Kihara 5200, Kiyotake, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan.
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Yang D, Biragyn A, Hoover DM, Lubkowski J, Oppenheim JJ. Multiple roles of antimicrobial defensins, cathelicidins, and eosinophil-derived neurotoxin in host defense. Annu Rev Immunol 2004; 22:181-215. [PMID: 15032578 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Mammals generate a diverse array of antimicrobial proteins, largely represented by defensins or cathelicidins. The direct in vitro microbicidal activity of antimicrobial proteins has long been considered an important innate immune defense, although the in vivo relevance has only very recently been established for certain defensins and cathelicidins. Mammalian defensins and cathelicidins have also been shown to have multiple receptor-mediated effects on immune cells. Beta-defensins interact with CCR6; murine beta-defensin-2 in addition activates TLR4. Cathelicidins act on FPRL1-expressing cells. Furthermore, several defensins have considerable immunoenhancing activity. Thus, it appears that mammalian antimicrobial proteins contribute to both innate and adaptive antimicrobial immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- De Yang
- Basic Research Program, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
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Mukae H, Iiboshi H, Nakazato M, Hiratsuka T, Tokojima M, Abe K, Ashitani J, Kadota J, Matsukura S, Kohno S. Raised plasma concentrations of alpha-defensins in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Thorax 2002; 57:623-8. [PMID: 12096207 PMCID: PMC1746385 DOI: 10.1136/thorax.57.7.623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neutrophils are thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Human neutrophils contain antimicrobial and cytotoxic peptides in the azurophil granules which belong to a family of mammalian neutrophil peptides named alpha-defensins. A study was undertaken to investigate the role of alpha-defensins in the pathogenesis of IPF. METHODS The concentrations of alpha-defensins (human neutrophil peptides (HNPs) 1, 2, and 3) in plasma and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of 30 patients with IPF and 15 healthy subjects were measured by radioimmunoassay. RESULTS The concentrations of alpha-defensins in plasma, but not in BAL fluid, were significantly higher in IPF patients than in controls. BAL fluid concentrations of interleukin (IL)-8 in patients with IPF, which were significantly higher than in controls, correlated with those of alpha-defensins. An inverse relationship was seen between plasma alpha-defensin levels and the arterial oxygen tension (PaO(2)) and pulmonary function (vital capacity (%VC), forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV(1)), and carbon monoxide transfer factor (%TLCO)) in patients with IPF. Plasma levels of alpha-defensins also correlated with the clinical course in IPF patients with an acute exacerbation. Immunohistochemically, positive staining was observed inside and outside neutrophils in the alveolar septa, especially in dense fibrotic areas. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that alpha-defensins play an important role in the pathogenesis of IPF, and that the plasma alpha-defensin level may be a useful marker of disease severity and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Mukae
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Nagasaki University School of Medicine, Nagasaki, Japan.
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Levy O, Sisson RB, Fryer HE, Goldmann D, Valore E, Ganz T, White ML, Carroll SF, Lehmann L, Guinan EC. Neutrophil defense in patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (BPI) and defensins in graft-derived neutrophils. Transplantation 2002; 73:1522-6. [PMID: 12023636 DOI: 10.1097/00007890-200205150-00027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Even after neutrophil counts return to near normal levels, patients undergoing myeloablative chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation (BMT) are at risk for invasive bacterial infections, raising the possibility that their neutrophil function might be impaired. To assess potential qualitative defects in neutrophil function in patients undergoing BMT, we measured neutrophil content of the antimicrobial (poly)peptides BPI and defensins. METHODS Neutrophil extracts were analyzed for content of BPI by Western blotting and ELISA and for defensin peptides by acid-urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). Antibacterial activity of neutrophil extracts was measured against Escherichia coli K1/r, a clinical isolate sensitive to synergistic killing by BPI and defensins. RESULTS Neutrophil extract BPI content on post-BMT days +20, +30, and +100 (169+/-35, 232+/-57, and 160+/-55 ng per 106 neutrophils, respectively) was similar to the neutrophil BPI content of normal controls (163+/-35 ng per 106 neutrophils). Neutrophil defensin content also did not vary during this time-span. Activity of neutrophil extracts against E. coli K1/r did not differ between BMT patients and controls. CONCLUSION At post-BMT days +20 to +100, neutrophils derived from engrafted marrow contain normal quantities of BPI and defensins. Any deficiencies of neutrophil function during this phase are not due to inadequate expression of these antimicrobial (poly)peptides but could reflect abnormalities in other aspects of neutrophil function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ofer Levy
- Division of Infectious Diseases, General Clinical Research Center, and Medicine, Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Ashitani JI, Mukae H, Hiratsuka T, Nakazato M, Kumamoto K, Matsukura S. Elevated levels of alpha-defensins in plasma and BAL fluid of patients with active pulmonary tuberculosis. Chest 2002; 121:519-26. [PMID: 11834667 DOI: 10.1378/chest.121.2.519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES To investigate the role of neutrophil peptides named alpha-defensins in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). PATIENTS Thirty-seven patients with TB and 25 healthy subjects. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS Concentrations of alpha-defensins (human neutrophil peptide [HNP]-1, HNP-2, and HNP-3) were measured by radioimmunoassay in plasma and BAL fluid (BALF). Concentrations of alpha-defensins were significantly higher in plasma and BALF of patients with TB than in healthy subjects. In BALF of patients with TB, the concentration of alpha-defensins correlated positively with the levels of interleukin 8, and higher concentrations of alpha-defensins in BALF were also detected in patients with cavitary lesions. There was an inverse relationship between plasma alpha-defensins and FEV(1)/FVC ratio before treatment, and between plasma concentrations of alpha-defensins before treatment and the improvement in percentage of vital capacity after treatment. Plasma alpha-defensin concentrations returned to the normal range after treatment. CONCLUSION Our data suggest that alpha-defensins released from neutrophils may play an important role in the pathogenesis of TB, and that plasma alpha-defensin concentration may be a useful marker of disease severity and deterioration of pulmonary function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-ichi Ashitani
- National Sanatorium Miyazakihigashi Hospital, Miyazaki Medical College, Miyazaki, Japan
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Ashitani J, Mukae H, Hiratsuka T, Nakazato M, Kumamoto K, Matsukura S. Plasma and BAL fluid concentrations of antimicrobial peptides in patients with Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection. Chest 2001; 119:1131-7. [PMID: 11296180 DOI: 10.1378/chest.119.4.1131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES To investigate the roles of human alpha-defensin (HAD), human beta-defensin (HBD)-1, and HBD-2, novel antimicrobial peptides, in patients with Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection (MAI). PATIENTS The study included 25 patients (10 men) with MAI who visited our hospital between June 1998 and August 1999. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS In patients with pulmonary MAI, we measured HAD and HBD-1, and HBD-2 levels in plasma and in BAL fluid (BALF) by radioimmunoassay. Plasma concentrations of HAD and HBD-2 in those patients were higher than those in control subjects, whereas HBD-1 levels were similar to those in the control subjects. High levels of HAD and HBD-2, but not HBD-1, also were observed in the BALF of MAI patients. There was a positive correlation between HAD and interleukin (IL)-8 concentrations in the BALF of patients with MAI. BALF HBD-2 concentrations also correlated positively with those of plasma HBD-2 and BALF IL-1 beta in MAI patients. Patients with cavity formation on the chest roentgenogram had higher HAD and HBD-2 levels in their BALF than those of patients without cavity formation. Treatment with clarithromycin combined with two or three other antibiotics, including ethambutol, rifampicin, ofloxacin, or ciprofloxacin, for at least 6 months resulted in a significant fall in plasma HBD-2 concentrations in responders, but not in nonresponders. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that HAD and HBD-2 may participate in host defense and local remodeling of the respiratory tract in patients with MAI and that plasma HBD-2 levels may be a useful marker of disease activity in patients with pulmonary MAI.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ashitani
- National Sanatorium Miyazakihigashi Hospital, Miyazaki, Japan
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