Characterization of the human UDP-galactose:ceramide galactosyltransferase gene promoter

Transcriptional Profiles Reveal Deregulation of Lipid Metabolism and Inflammatory Pathways in Neurons Exposed to Palmitic Acid

The effects of the consumption of high-fat diets (HFD) have been studied to unravel the molecular pathways they are altering in order to understand the link between increased caloric intake, metabolic diseases, and the risk of cognitive dysfunction. The saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid (PA), is the main component of HFD and it has been found increased in the circulation of obese and diabetic people. In the central nervous system, PA has been associated with inflammatory responses in astrocytes, but the effects on neurons exposed to it have not been largely investigated. Given that PA affects a variety of metabolic pathways, we aimed to analyze the transcriptomic profile activated by this fatty acid to shed light on the mechanisms of neuronal dysfunction. In the current study, we profiled the transcriptome response after PA exposition at non-toxic doses in primary hippocampal neurons. Gene ontology and Reactome pathway analysis revealed a pattern of gene expression which is associated with inflammatory pathways, and importantly, with the activation of lipid metabolism that is considered not very active in neurons. Validation by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) of Hmgcs2, Angptl4, Ugt8, and Rnf145 support the results obtained by RNAseq. Overall, these findings suggest that neurons are able to respond to saturated fatty acids changing the expression pattern of genes associated with inflammatory response and lipid utilization that may be involved in the neuronal damage associated with metabolic diseases.

Functional roles of gangliosides in neurodevelopment: an overview of recent advances

Gangliosides are sialic acid-containing glycosphingolipids that are most abundant in the nervous system. They are localized primarily in the outer leaflets of plasma membranes and participated in cell-cell recognition, adhesion, and signal transduction and are integral components of cell surface microdomains or lipid rafts along with proteins, sphingomyelin and cholesterol. Ganglioside-rich lipid rafts play an important role in signaling events affecting neural development and the pathogenesis of certain diseases. Disruption of gangloside synthase genes in mice induces developmental defects and neural degeneration. Targeting ganglioside metabolism may represent a novel therapeutic strategy for intervention in certain diseases. In this review, we focus on recent advances on metabolic and functional studies of gangliosides in normal brain development and in certain neurological disorders.

Modulation of human serotonin transporter expression by 5-HTTLPR in colon cells

Serotonin (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter and plays important roles in several of the human body's systems. Known as a primary target for psychoactive drug development, the 5-HT transporter (5-HTT, SERT) plays a critical role in the regulation of serotonergic function by reuptaking 5-HT. The allelic variation of 5-HTT expression is caused by functional gene promoter polymorphism with two principal variant alleles, 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR). It has been demonstrated that 5-HTTLPR is associated with numerous neuropsychiatric disorders. The functional roles of 5-HTTLPR have been reported in human choriocarcinoma (JAR), lymphoblast and raphe cells. To date, the significance of 5-HTTLPR in gastrointestinal tract-derived cells has never been elucidated. Thus, the impact of 5-HTTLPR on 5-HTT transcription was studied in SW480 human colon carcinoma cells, which were shown to express 5-HTT. We found 42-bp fragment in long (L) allele as compared to short (S) allele, and this allelic difference resulted in 2-fold higher transcriptional efficiency of L allele (P < 0.05) as demonstrated using a functional reporter gene assay. Nevertheless, the transcriptional effect of estrogen and glucocorticoid on 5-HTT expression via 5-HTTLPR was not found in this cell line. Our study was the first to demonstrate the molecular role of this allelic variation in gastrointestinal tract cells.

Langmur monolayers of cerebroside with different head groups originated from sea cucumber: binary systems with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC)

Surface properties (Langmuir monolayer) of two different cerebrosides which are extracted from the sea cucumber (Bohadschia argus) were investigated. A main difference in chemical structure of cerebroside between BAC-2a and BAC-4 is their head groups (glucose and galactose, respectively). Furthermore, miscibility and interaction between dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and cerebrosides (BAC-2a and BAC-4) in the monolayer have been systematically examined. The surface pressure (pi)-area (A), the surface potential (Delta V)-A, and the dipole moment (mu(perpendicular))-A isotherms for monolayers of DPPC, cerebrosides, and their binary combinations have been measured using the Wilhelmy method and the ionizing electrode method. BAC-4 forms a stable liquid-expanded (LE) monolayer, whereas BAC-2a has a first-order phase transition from the LE phase to the liquid-condensed (LC) state on 0.15 M NaCl at 298.2 K. The fundamental properties for each cerebroside monolayer were elucidated in terms of the surface dipole moment based on the three-layer model [R.J. Demchak, T. Fort Jr., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 46 (1974) 191-202] for both cerebrosides and the apparent molar quantity change (Delta s(gamma), Delta h(gamma), and Delta u(gamma)) for BAC-2a. In addition, their miscibility with DPPC was examined by the variation of the molecular areas and the surface potentials as a function of cerebroside mole fractions, the additivity rule. The miscibility was also confirmed by constructing the two-dimensional phase diagrams. The phase diagrams for the both binary systems were of negative azeotropic type. That is, the two-component DPPC/BAC-2a and DPPC/BAC-4 monolayers are miscible. Furthermore, the Joos equation for the analysis of the collapse pressure of binary monolayers allowed calculation of the interaction parameter and the interaction energy between the DPPC and cerebroside monolayers. The miscibility in the monolayer state was also confirmed by the morphological observation with Brewster angle microscopy (BAM), fluorescence microscopy (FM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM).

Cloning and transcriptional regulation of genes responsible for synthesis of gangliosides

Ganglioside synthases are glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of glycoconjugates. A number of ganglioside synthase genes have been cloned and characterized. They are classified into different families of glycosyltransferases based on similarities of their amino acid sequences. Tissue-specific expression of these genes has been analyzed by hybridization using cDNA fragments. Enzymatic characterization with the expressed recombinant enzymes showed these enzymes differ in their donor and acceptor substrate specificities and other biochemical parameters. In vitro enzymatic analysis also showed that one linkage can be synthesized by multiple enzymes and one enzyme may be responsible for synthesis of multiple gangliosides. Following the cloning of the ganglioside synthase genes, the promoters of the key synthase genes in the ganglioside biosynthetic pathway have been cloned and analyzed. All of the promoters are TATA-less, lacking a CCAAT box but containing GC-rich boxes, characteristic of the house-keeping genes, although transcription of ganglioside synthase genes is subject to complex developmental and tissue-specific regulation. A set of cis-acting elements and transcription factors, including Sp1, AP2, and CREB, function in the proximal promoters. Negative-regulatory regions have also been defined in most of the promoters. We present here an overview of these genes and their transcriptional regulation.

Langmuir monolayers of cerebroside originated from Linckia laevigata: binary systems of cerebrosides and phospholipid

The surface pressure (pi)-area (A), the surface potential (DeltaV)-A and the dipole moment (mu( perpendicular))-A isotherms were obtained for six cerebrosides of LLC-2, LLC-2-1, LLC-2-8, LLC-2-10, LLC-2-12, and LLC-2-15, which were isolated from Linckia laevigata, and two-component monolayers of two different cerebrosides (LLC-2 and LLC-2-8) with phospholipid of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) on a subphase of 0.15 M sodium chloride solution as a function of cerebroside compositions in the two-component systems by employing the Wilhelmy method, the ionizing electrode method, and the fluorescence microscopy. The new finding was that LLC-2 showed a stable and liquid expanded type film. Four of them (LLC-2-8, -10, -12, and -15) had the phase transition from the liquid-expanded (LE) to the liquid-condensed (LC) states at 298.2 K. The apparent molar quantity changes (Deltas(gamma), Deltah(gamma), and Deltau(gamma)) on their phase transition on 0.15M at 298.2 K were calculated. The miscibility of cerebroside and phospholipid in the two-component monolayers was examined by plotting the variation of the molecular area and the surface potential as a function of the cerebroside molar fraction (X(cerebroside)), using the additivity rule. From the A-X(cerebroside) and DeltaV(m)-X(phospholipid) plots, a partial molecular surface area (PMA) and an apparent partial molecular surface potential (APSP) were determined at the discrete surface pressure. The PMA and APSP with the mole fraction were extensively discussed for the miscible systems. Judging from the two-dimensional phase diagrams, these were found to be one type, a positive azeotropic type; all the cerebrosides were miscible with DPPC. Furthermore, assuming a regular surface mixture, the Joos equation for the analysis of the collapse pressure of two-component monolayers allowed calculation of the interaction parameter (xi) and the interaction energy (-Deltavarepsilon) between the cerebrosides and DPPC. The miscibility of cerebroside and phospholipid components in the monolayer state was also supported by fluorescence microscopy.

Cerebroside Langmuir monolayers originated from the echinoderms

The surface pressure (pi)-area (A), the surface potential (DeltaV)-A and the dipole moment (mu( perpendicular))-A isotherms were obtained for two-component monolayers of two different cerebrosides (LMC-1 and LMC-2) with phospholipids of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and with dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE) on a subphase of 0.5 M sodium chloride solution as a function of phospholipid compositions by employing the Langmuir method, the ionizing electrode method, and the fluorescence microscopy. Surface potentials (DeltaV) of pure components were analyzed using the three-layer model proposed by Demchak and Fort. The contributions of the hydrophilic saccharide group and the head group to the vertical component of the dipole moment (mu( perpendicular)) were estimated. The miscibility of cerebroside and phospholipid in the two-component monolayers was examined by plotting the variation of the molecular area and the surface potential as a function of the phospholipid molar fraction (X(phospholipid)), using the additivity rule. From the A-X(phospholipid) and DeltaV(m)-X(phospholipid) plots, partial molecular surface area (PMA) and apparent partial molecular surface potential (APSP) were determined at the discrete surface pressure. The PMA and APSP with the mole fraction were extensively discussed for the miscible system. Judging from the two-dimensional phase diagrams, these can be classified into two types. The first is a positive azeotropic type; the combinations of cerebrosides with DPPC are miscible with each other. The second is a completely immiscible type: the combination of cerebrosides with DPPE. Furthermore, a regular surface mixture, for which the Joos equation was used for the analysis of the collapse pressure of two-component monolayers, allowed calculation of the interaction parameter (xi) and the interaction energy (-Delta epsilon) between the cerebrosides and DPPC component. The miscibility of cerebroside and phospholipid components in the monolayer state was also supported by fluorescence microscopy.

Regulation of ganglioside biosynthesis in the nervous system

Ganglioside biosynthesis is strictly regulated by the activities of glycosyltransferases and is necessarily controlled at the levels of gene transcription and posttranslational modification. Cells can switch between expressing simple and complex gangliosides or between different series within these two groups during brain development. The sequential biosynthesis of gangliosides in parallel enzymatic pathways, however, requires fine-tuned subcellular sequestration and orchestration of glycosyltransferases. A popular model predicts that this regulation is achieved by the vectorial organization of ganglioside biosynthesis: sequential biosynthetic steps occur with the traffic of ganglioside intermediates through subsequent subcellular compartments. Here, we review current models for the subcellular distribution of glycosyltransferases and discuss results that suggest a critical role of N-glycosylation for the processing, transport, and complex formation of these enzymes. In this context, we attempt to illustrate the regulation of ganglioside biosynthesis as well as the biological significance of N-glycosylation as a posttranslational regulatory mechanism. We also review the results of analyses of the 5' regulatory sequences of several glycosyltransferases in ganglioside biosynthesis and provide insights into how their synthesis can be regulated at the level of transcription.

Transcriptional regulation of the human UDP-galactose:ceramide galactosyltransferase (hCGT) gene expression: functional role of GC-box and CRE

UDP-galactose:ceramide galactosyltransferase (CGT, EC 2.4.1.45) is a key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of galactocerebroside (GalC), the most abundant glycolipid in myelin. Using a GalC expressing cell line, human oligodendroglioma (HOG), one which does not express GalC, human neuroblastoma (LAN-5), we previously demonstrated that the human CGT (hCGT) gene promoter functions in a cell-specific manner. Because the proximal (-292/-256) and distal (-747/-688) positive domains were shown to be critically involved in regulating the expression of several myelin-specific genes, we further investigated the functional roles of these two motifs in hCGT expression. Mutation analysis confirmed that a GC-box (-267/-259) and a CRE (-697/-690) were critical for hCGT expression. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) demonstrated that these motifs specifically bound to nuclear extracts from both cell lines. Using antibodies to Sp1, Sp3, pCREB-1, and ATF-1, these proteins were shown to be components of the EMSA complexes. However, the only difference between the HOG and LAN-5 cells was found in the EMSA profile of the CRE complexes. This difference may account for the differential transcription of the hCGT gene in the two cell types. Furthermore, the expression levels of ATF-1 detected were much higher in HOG cells than in LAN-5 cells. Thus, our data suggest that the GC-box and CRE function cooperatively, and that the CRE regulates the cell-specific expression of the hCGT gene.

Regulation of the intestinal glycoprotein glycosylation during postnatal development: role of hormonal and nutritional factors

This review focuses on the regulation of the glycoprotein glycosylation process in small intestine and colon during postnatal development. Glycoproteins play a prominent part in intestine as mucins secreted by the goblet cells and as molecules of biological interest largely present in the microvillus membrane of the enterocytes (digestive enzymes, transporters). The age-related changes in the intestinal glycosylation control the quality of glycan chains of glycoproteins. Postnatal maturation is observed at all stages of the glycoprotein glycosylation. But it is essentially characterised in the external glycosylation by a shift from sialylation to fucosylation depending on the transcriptional regulation of the corresponding glycosyltransferases, but also on coordinate changes in the activities of glycosyltransferases and of their regulatory proteins, in nucleotide-sugar bioavailability and in product degradation by oxidases. Many factors have been evoked to trigger these changes, among which are hormonal (glucocorticoids, insulin) and dietary factors. Changes in the structure of the glycoprotein glycans might be important for the transport, the barrier function, the implantation of the immune defences and of the microflora and even probably for the biological activity of some digestive enzymes.