1
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Chen X, Mietlicki-Baase EG, Barrett TM, McGrath LE, Koch-Laskowski K, Ferrie JJ, Hayes MR, Petersson EJ. Thioamide Substitution Selectively Modulates Proteolysis and Receptor Activity of Therapeutic Peptide Hormones. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:16688-16695. [PMID: 29130686 PMCID: PMC7744120 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b08417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Peptide hormones are attractive as injectable therapeutics and imaging agents, but they often require extensive modification by mutagenesis and/or chemical synthesis to prevent rapid in vivo degradation. Alternatively, the single-atom, O-to-S modification of peptide backbone thioamidation has the potential to selectively perturb interactions with proteases while preserving interactions with other proteins, such as target receptors. Here, we use the validated diabetes therapeutic, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), and the target of clinical investigation, gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), as proof-of-principle peptides to demonstrate the value of thioamide substitution. In GLP-1 and GIP, a single thioamide near the scissile bond renders these peptides up to 750-fold more stable than the corresponding oxopeptides toward cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase 4, the principal regulator of their in vivo stability. These stabilized analogues are nearly equipotent with their parent peptide in cyclic AMP activation assays, but the GLP-1 thiopeptides have much lower β-arrestin potency, making them novel agonists with altered signaling bias. Initial tests show that a thioamide GLP-1 analogue is biologically active in rats, with an in vivo potency for glycemic control surpassing that of native GLP-1. Taken together, these experiments demonstrate the potential for thioamides to modulate specific protein interactions to increase proteolytic stability or tune activation of different signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Elizabeth G. Mietlicki-Baase
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 125 South 31st Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
- Current Address: Department of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, G10G Farber Hall, NY 14214
| | - Taylor M. Barrett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Lauren E. McGrath
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 125 South 31st Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Kieran Koch-Laskowski
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 125 South 31st Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - John J. Ferrie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Matthew R. Hayes
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 125 South 31st Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - E. James Petersson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104
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2
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Khaket TP, Dhanda S, Jodha D, Singh J. Purification and biochemical characterization of dipeptidyl peptidase-II (DPP7) homologue from germinated Vigna radiata seeds. Bioorg Chem 2015; 63:132-41. [PMID: 26524724 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2015.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Dipeptidyl peptidases (DPPs) are potent exopeptidases, which possess central role in proteolysis. As compared to other members of DPP family, proline containing dipeptide hydrolysing activity of DPP-II (Dipeptidyl peptidase II) is unique as it hydrolyses imino group and plays a key role in protein metabolism. In present study, DPP-II was purified from germinated moong bean seeds using acid and ammonium sulphate precipitation followed by successive chromatographies on gel filtration (pH 7.4) and cation exchanger (pH 5.9). Native PAGE and in-situ gel assay confirmed the apparent homogeneity. Purified plant DPP-II is an oligomeric enzyme with molecular weight of 97.3kDa. Highest DPP-II activity was observed at pH 7.5 and 37°C, with stability in the range of neutral to alkaline pH. Substrate specificity showed consequent activity for proline containing dipeptide followed by Lys-Ala and other hydrophobic dipeptides, but none of the studied endopeptidase and monopeptidase substrate was hydrolysed. Catalytic characterization with modifier studies revealed the involvement of Ser and His residues in its catalytic mechanism. Its dipeptidyl peptidase activity for proline containing dipeptide supported its role in the bioactive peptide generation and food industry. Functional studies of DPP-II revealed the significant involvement of this glycoproteinous enzyme in protein mobilization during germination. Further studies on industrial applications exploring physiological role are in progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejinder Pal Khaket
- Department of Biochemistry, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India; Department of Biotechnology, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Ambala, Haryana, India
| | - Suman Dhanda
- Department of Biochemistry, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
| | - Druksakshi Jodha
- Department of Biochemistry, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
| | - Jasbir Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India.
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3
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Waumans Y, Baerts L, Kehoe K, Lambeir AM, De Meester I. The Dipeptidyl Peptidase Family, Prolyl Oligopeptidase, and Prolyl Carboxypeptidase in the Immune System and Inflammatory Disease, Including Atherosclerosis. Front Immunol 2015; 6:387. [PMID: 26300881 PMCID: PMC4528296 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Research from over the past 20 years has implicated dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) IV and its family members in many processes and different pathologies of the immune system. Most research has been focused on either DPPIV or just a few of its family members. It is, however, essential to consider the entire DPP family when discussing any one of its members. There is a substantial overlap between family members in their substrate specificity, inhibitors, and functions. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion on the role of prolyl-specific peptidases DPPIV, FAP, DPP8, DPP9, dipeptidyl peptidase II, prolyl carboxypeptidase, and prolyl oligopeptidase in the immune system and its diseases. We highlight possible therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis, a condition that lies at the frontier between inflammation and cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Waumans
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp , Antwerp , Belgium
| | - Lesley Baerts
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp , Antwerp , Belgium
| | - Kaat Kehoe
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp , Antwerp , Belgium
| | - Anne-Marie Lambeir
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp , Antwerp , Belgium
| | - Ingrid De Meester
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp , Antwerp , Belgium
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4
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Goldberg JM, Chen X, Meinhardt N, Greenbaum DC, Petersson EJ. Thioamide-based fluorescent protease sensors. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:2086-93. [PMID: 24472041 PMCID: PMC3985465 DOI: 10.1021/ja412297x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Thioamide
quenchers can be paired with compact fluorophores to
design “turn-on” fluorescent protease substrates. We
have used this method to study a variety of serine-, cysteine-, carboxyl-,
and metallo-proteases, including trypsin, chymotrypsin, pepsin, thermolysin,
papain, and calpain. Since thioamides quench some fluorophores red-shifted
from those naturally occurring in proteins, this technique can be
used for real time monitoring of protease activity in crude preparations
of virtually any protease. We demonstrate the value of this method
in three model applications: (1) characterization of papain enzyme
kinetics using rapid-mixing experiments, (2) selective monitoring
of cleavage at a single site in a peptide with multiple proteolytic
sites, and (3) analysis of the specificity of an inhibitor of calpain
in cell lysates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Goldberg
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania , 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
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5
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Structures of human DPP7 reveal the molecular basis of specific inhibition and the architectural diversity of proline-specific peptidases. PLoS One 2012; 7:e43019. [PMID: 22952628 PMCID: PMC3430648 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Proline-specific dipeptidyl peptidases (DPPs) are emerging targets for drug development. DPP4 inhibitors are approved in many countries, and other dipeptidyl peptidases are often referred to as DPP4 activity- and/or structure-homologues (DASH). Members of the DASH family have overlapping substrate specificities, and, even though they share low sequence identity, therapeutic or clinical cross-reactivity is a concern. Here, we report the structure of human DPP7 and its complex with a selective inhibitor Dab-Pip (L-2,4-diaminobutyryl-piperidinamide) and compare it with that of DPP4. Both enzymes share a common catalytic domain (α/β-hydrolase). The catalytic pocket is located in the interior of DPP7, deep inside the cleft between the two domains. Substrates might access the active site via a narrow tunnel. The DPP7 catalytic triad is completely conserved and comprises Ser162, Asp418 and His443 (corresponding to Ser630, Asp708 and His740 in DPP4), while other residues lining the catalytic pockets differ considerably. The “specificity domains” are structurally also completely different exhibiting a β-propeller fold in DPP4 compared to a rare, completely helical fold in DPP7. Comparing the structures of DPP7 and DPP4 allows the design of specific inhibitors and thus the development of less cross-reactive drugs. Furthermore, the reported DPP7 structures shed some light onto the evolutionary relationship of prolyl-specific peptidases through the analysis of the architectural organization of their domains.
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6
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Mulakayala N, Reddy CH U, Iqbal J, Pal M. Synthesis of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors: a brief overview. Tetrahedron 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2010.04.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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7
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Lawandi J, Gerber-Lemaire S, Juillerat-Jeanneret L, Moitessier N. Inhibitors of prolyl oligopeptidases for the therapy of human diseases: defining diseases and inhibitors. J Med Chem 2010; 53:3423-38. [PMID: 20058865 DOI: 10.1021/jm901104g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janice Lawandi
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2K6, Canada
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8
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Kim KH, Kim ND, Seong BL. Pharmacophore-based virtual screening: a review of recent applications. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2010; 5:205-22. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441003592072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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9
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Carboxamidation of carboxylic acids with 1-tert-butoxy-2-tert-butoxycarbonyl-1,2-dihydroisoquinoline (BBDI) without bases. Tetrahedron 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2008.09.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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10
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Inomata K, Nagamine T, Endo Y. A New Chiral Synthesis of a Bicyclic Enedione Containing a Seven-Membered Ring Mediated by a Combination of Chiral Amine and Brønsted Acid. HETEROCYCLES 2008. [DOI: 10.3987/com-08-s(n)81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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11
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Maes MB, Scharpé S, De Meester I. Dipeptidyl peptidase II (DPPII), a review. Clin Chim Acta 2007; 380:31-49. [PMID: 17328877 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2007.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2006] [Revised: 01/17/2007] [Accepted: 01/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
An increasing number of biological processes appear to be regulated by Pro-specific N-terminal processing. The proline-specific dipeptidyl peptidases (DPPs) like DPPIV, fibroblast activation protein alpha (FAP), DPPII, DPP8 and DPP9, because of their preference for cleavage after X-Pro in vitro, are likely to be involved in many of these processes. These DPPs are emerging as an important protease family with roles in the regulation of signaling by peptide hormones. Dipeptidyl peptidase II (DPPII, E.C. 3.4.14.2) is an intracellular protease that localizes to the vesicular system. It releases, preferably at acidic pH, N-terminal dipeptides from oligopeptides with Pro or Ala in the penultimate position. Despite the fact that the physiological role of DPPII still has not been elucidated, several suggestions were made on possible functions of the enzyme depending on its localization in different cells, body fluids and organs. DPPII was a.o. suggested to be involved in the processes of cell differentiation and in the protection from cell death, and to have a role in the degradation of collagen fragments, myofibrillar proteins and short neuropeptides. Moreover, changes in the level and distribution of the enzyme provided clues indicating additional roles in disease-related processes. Here we review the DPPII literature, aiming to bring more clarity in the disperse data on this subject and give a state of the art on DPPII research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Berthe Maes
- Laboratory for Medical Biochemistry, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
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12
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Stöckel-Maschek A, Stiebitz B, Senns B, Lindner N, Mögelin W, Neubert K. Phosphorus-Containing Inhibitors of Proteolytic Enzymes. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2006; 575:19-26. [PMID: 16700504 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-32824-6_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Angela Stöckel-Maschek
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Strasse 3, Halle, Germany
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13
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Green BD, Flatt PR, Bailey CJ. Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity as a therapy of Type 2 diabetes. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2006; 11:525-39. [PMID: 16939389 DOI: 10.1517/14728214.11.3.525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV) is a ubiquitous, multifunctional, serine protease enzyme and receptor with roles in the control of endocrine and immune function, cell metabolism, growth and adhesion. As an enzyme, DPP IV cleaves the N-terminal dipeptide from the incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. This inactivates the hormones, thereby cancelling their prandial insulinotropic effect. One approach to restore incretin activity as a therapy for Type 2 diabetes has been the development of DPP IV inhibitors. Inhibitors of DPP IV have shown efficacy and tolerability when used to control the hyperglycaemia of noninsulin-dependent animal models and human Type 2 diabetes. These DPP IV inhibitors prolong active incretin hormone concentrations and may exert additional antidiabetic effects. If long-term clinical trials confirm sustained and safe control of blood glucose, DPP IV inhibitors (known as 'gliptins') may be expected to provide a new treatment modality for Type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Green
- Queens University Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast BT9 5AG, Northern Ireland.
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14
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Sakashita H, Akahoshi F, Kitajima H, Tsutsumiuchi R, Hayashi Y. [(S)-γ-(Arylamino)prolyl]thiazolidine compounds as a novel series of potent and stable DPP-IV inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2006; 14:3662-71. [PMID: 16460948 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2006.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2005] [Revised: 01/10/2006] [Accepted: 01/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) inhibitors, or glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) enhancers, are looked to as a potential new class of antidiabetic agents. In particular, potent and long-acting inhibitors might offer advantages in exploiting DPP-IV inhibition. The series of [(S)-gamma-(arylamino)prolyl]-(S)-2-cyanopyrrolidine compounds on which we reported previously has a highly potent inhibitory activity but seemed to be unstable in neutral aqueous solution. Here, we describe [(S)-gamma-(arylamino)prolyl]thiazolidine compounds as a novel series of potent and stable DPP-IV inhibitors. They are the thiazolidine analogs of [(S)-gamma-(arylamino)prolyl]-(S)-2-cyanopyrrolidine but with the electrophilic nitrile removed to improve chemical stability in aqueous solution. Of the compounds investigated in the present study, the [((S)-gamma-3,4-dicyanophenylamino)prolyl]thiazolidine 12 m was the most potent. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) of the gamma-substituent in the proline moiety of the thiazolidide was similar to that obtained with the (S)-2-cyanopyrrolidide. The gamma-substituent in the proline moiety of both the (S)-2-cyanopyrrolidide and the thiazolidide may engage with the S(2) binding pocket of DPP-IV and thereby achieve hydrophobic interaction in the same manner. Based on pharmacokinetic experiments in rats, the representative compound 11, which displayed high oral bioavailability (BA=83.9%) and long half-life in plasma (t(1/2)=5.27 h), was found to have an excellent pharmacokinetic profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Sakashita
- Research Laboratory II, Pharmaceuticals Research Unit, Research and Development Division, Mitsubishi Pharma Corporation, 1000 Kamoshida-cho, Aoba-ku, Yokohama 227-0033, Japan
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15
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Werle M, Bernkop-Schnürch A. Strategies to improve plasma half life time of peptide and protein drugs. Amino Acids 2006; 30:351-67. [PMID: 16622600 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-005-0289-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 467] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2005] [Accepted: 12/16/2005] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Due to the obvious advantages of long-acting peptide and protein drugs, strategies to prolong plasma half life time of such compounds are highly on demand. Short plasma half life times are commonly due to fast renal clearance as well as to enzymatic degradation occurring during systemic circulation. Modifications of the peptide/protein can lead to prolonged plasma half life times. By shortening the overall amino acid amount of somatostatin and replacing L: -analogue amino acids with D: -amino acids, plasma half life time of the derivate octreotide was 1.5 hours in comparison to only few minutes of somatostatin. A PEG(2,40 K) conjugate of INF-alpha-2b exhibited a 330-fold prolonged plasma half life time compared to the native protein. It was the aim of this review to provide an overview of possible strategies to prolong plasma half life time such as modification of N- and C-terminus or PEGylation as well as methods to evaluate the effectiveness of drug modifications. Furthermore, fundamental data about most important proteolytic enzymes of human blood, liver and kidney as well as their cleavage specificity and inhibitors for them are provided in order to predict enzymatic cleavage of peptide and protein drugs during systemic circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Werle
- ThioMatrix GmbH, Research Center Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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16
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Nordhoff S, Cerezo-Gálvez S, Feurer A, Hill O, Matassa VG, Metz G, Rummey C, Thiemann M, Edwards PJ. The reversed binding of β-phenethylamine inhibitors of DPP-IV: X-ray structures and properties of novel fragment and elaborated inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2006; 16:1744-8. [PMID: 16376544 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.11.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2005] [Revised: 11/29/2005] [Accepted: 11/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The co-crystal structure of beta-phenethylamine fragment inhibitor 5 bound to DPP-IV revealed that the phenyl ring occupied the proline pocket of the enzyme. This finding provided the basis for a general hypothesis of a reverse binding mode for beta-phenethylamine-based DPP-IV inhibitors. Novel inhibitor design concepts that obviate substrate-like structure-activity relationships (SAR) were thereby enabled, and novel, potent inhibitors were discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Nordhoff
- Medicinal Chemistry, Santhera Pharmaceuticals, Im Neuenheimer Feld 518-519, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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17
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Stöckel-Maschek A, Stiebitz B, Koelsch R, Neubert K. Novel 3-amino-2-hydroxy acids containing protease inhibitors. Part 1: Synthesis and kinetic characterization as aminopeptidase P inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2005; 13:4806-20. [PMID: 15993089 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2005.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 05/24/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Novel, potent inhibitors of aminopeptidase P, containing a 3-amino-2-hydroxy acid and a proline or a proline analogues, have been prepared. One part of the bestatin-derived inhibitors was found to inhibit APP from Escherichia coli and from rat intestine according to a mixed-type mechanism, with Ki values up to 1.26 microM. The other compounds, 3-amino-2-hydroxy acyl prolines of a different configuration, inhibit APP competitively, according to a slow-binding mechanism, with Ki values in the nanomolar up to the micromolar range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Stöckel-Maschek
- Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Biochemistry/Biotechnology, Kurt-Mothes-Str.3, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
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18
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Ward RA, Perkins TDJ, Stafford J. Structure-Based Virtual Screening for Low Molecular Weight Chemical Starting Points for Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2005; 48:6991-6. [PMID: 16250657 DOI: 10.1021/jm0505866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Structure-based virtual screening was performed against the target dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) to identify good chemical starting points for medicinal chemistry. A database of available compounds was filtered by calculated physical properties and undesired chemistry. This database was matched against two in-house designed DPP-IV pharmacophores, and the hits from these pharmacophore searches were docked into a DPP-IV crystal structure. Compounds were then selected for testing and 51 active compounds were identified from a list of 4000 compounds tested. These had activities ranging from 30% to 82% when tested at a concentration of 30 microM in an enzyme inhibition assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Ward
- Cancer Discovery, AstraZeneca, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 4TG, UK.
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19
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Deacon CF, Holst JJ. Dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors: a promising new therapeutic approach for the management of type 2 diabetes. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2005; 38:831-44. [PMID: 16242377 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2005.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2005] [Revised: 09/09/2005] [Accepted: 09/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Glucagon-like peptide-1 is an insulinotropic hormone with antidiabetic potential due to its spectrum of effects, which include glucose-dependent stimulation of insulin and inhibition of glucagon secretion, tropic effects on the pancreatic beta-cells, inhibition of gastric emptying and the reduction of appetite. Glucagon-like peptide-1 is, however, extremely rapidly inactivated by the serine peptidase, dipeptidyl peptidase IV, so that the native peptide is not useful clinically. A new approach to utilise the beneficial effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 in the treatment of type 2 diabetes has been the development of orally active dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors. Preclinical studies have demonstrated that this approach is effective in enhancing endogenous levels of glucagon-like peptide-1, resulting in improved glucose tolerance in glucose-intolerant and diabetic animal models. In recent studies of 3-12 months duration in patients with type 2 diabetes, dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors have proved efficacious, both as monotherapy and when given in combination with metformin. Fasting and postprandial glucose concentrations were reduced, leading to reductions in glycosylated haemoglobin levels, while beta-cell function was preserved. Current information suggests dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors are body weight neutral and are well tolerated. A number of dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors are now in the late stages of clinical development. These have different properties, in terms of their duration of action and anticipated dosing frequency, but data from protracted dosing studies is presently not available to allow comparison of their clinical efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn F Deacon
- Department of Medical Physiology, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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20
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Xu J, Wei L, Mathvink R, He J, Park YJ, He H, Leiting B, Lyons KA, Marsilio F, Patel RA, Wu JK, Thornberry NA, Weber AE. Discovery of potent and selective phenylalanine based dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2005; 15:2533-6. [PMID: 15863311 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2005] [Revised: 03/10/2005] [Accepted: 03/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
anti-Substituted beta-methylphenylalanine derived amides have been shown to be potent DPP-IV inhibitors exhibiting excellent selectivity over both DPP8 and DPP9. These are among the most potent compounds reported to date lacking an electrophilic trap. The most potent compound among these is 5-oxo-1,2,4-oxadiazole 44, which is a 3 nM DPP-IV inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyou Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Merck & Co., Inc., PO Box 2000, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA
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21
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Augustyns K, Van der Veken P, Senten K, Haemers A. Dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors as new therapeutic agents for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2005. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.13.4.499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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22
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Deacon CF, Ahrén B, Holst JJ. Inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV: a novel approach for the prevention and treatment of Type 2 diabetes? Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2005; 13:1091-102. [PMID: 15330741 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.13.9.1091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitors of the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV) are of increasing interest to both diabetologists and the pharmaceutical industry alike, as they may become established as the next member of the oral antidiabetic class of therapeutic agents, designed to lower blood glucose and, possibly, prevent the progressive impairment of glucose metabolism in patients with impaired glucose tolerance and Type 2 diabetes. DPP IV has become a focus of attention for drug design, as it has a pivotal role in the rapid degradation of at least two of the hormones released during food ingestion, a property that has warranted the design of inhibitor-based drugs. At the molecular level, DPP IV cleaves two amino acids from the N-terminus of the intact, biologically active forms of both so-called incretin hormones, glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (formerly known as gastric inhibitory polypeptide), resulting in truncated metabolites, which are largely inactive. Inhibition of the enzyme, therefore, is thought to increase levels of the active forms of both incretin hormones, culminating in an increase in insulin release after a meal, in a fully glucose-dependent manner. DPP IV inhibitors combine several features of interest to the drug design process. They can be readily optimised for their target and be designed as low molecular weight, orally active entities compatible with once-daily administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn F Deacon
- Department of Medical Physiology, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark.
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23
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Buckley SJ, Collins PJ, O'Connor BF. The purification and characterisation of novel dipeptidyl peptidase IV-like activity from bovine serum. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2004; 36:1281-96. [PMID: 15109572 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2003.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2002] [Revised: 02/07/2003] [Accepted: 02/13/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of a potentially novel proline-specific peptidase from bovine serum is presented which is capable of cleaving the dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPIV) substrate Gly-Pro-MCA. The enzyme was isolated and purified with the use of Phenyl Sepharose Hydrophobic Interaction, Sephacryl S-300 Gel Filtration, and Q-Sephacryl Anion Exchange, producing an overall purification factor of 257. SDS PAGE resulted in a monomeric molecular mass of 158kDa while size exclusion chromatography generated a native molecular mass of 328kDa. The enzyme remained active over a broad pH range with a distinct preference for a neutral pH range of 7-8.5. Chromatofocusing and isoelectric focusing (IEF) revealed the enzyme's isoelectric point to be 4.74. DPIV-like activity was not inhibited by serine protease inhibitors but was by the metallo-protease inhibitors, the phenanthrolines. The enzyme was also partially inhibited by bestatin. Substrate specificity studies proved that the enzyme is capable of sequential cleavage of bovine beta-Casomorphin and Substance P. The peptidase cleaved the standard DPIV substrate, Gly-Pro-MCA with a K(M) of 38.4 microM, while Lys-Pro-MCA was hydrolysed with a K(M) of 103 microM. The DPIV-like activity was specifically inhibited by both Diprotin A and B, non-competitively, generating a K(i) of 1.4 x 10(-4) M for both inhibitors. Ile-Thiazolidide and Ile-Pyrrolidide both inhibited competitively with an inhibition constant of 3.7 x 10(-7) and 7.5 x 10(-7) M, respectively. It is concluded that bovine serum DPIV-like activity share many biochemical properties with DPIV and DPIV-like enzymes but not exclusively, suggesting that the purified peptidase may play an important novel role in bioactive oligopeptide degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seamus J Buckley
- School of Biotechnology and National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
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24
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Girardi ACC, Knauf F, Demuth HU, Aronson PS. Role of dipeptidyl peptidase IV in regulating activity of Na+/H+exchanger isoform NHE3 in proximal tubule cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2004; 287:C1238-45. [PMID: 15213057 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00186.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We recently reported that NHE3 exists in multimeric complexes with dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) in renal brush-border membranes. To examine the possible role of DPPIV in modulating NHE3 activity, we evaluated whether specific competitive inhibitors that bind to the active site of DPPIV affect NHE3 activity in the OKP line of opossum kidney proximal tubule cells. The DPPIV inhibitors diprotin A and P32/98 significantly reduced NHE3 activity, whereas the inactive isomer P34/98 had no effect. DPPIV inhibitors did not reduce the activity of another brush-border transport process, Na-phosphate cotransport. Effects of DPPIV inhibitors on NHE3 activity were not associated with detectable changes in amount or apparent molecular weight of NHE3 or in NHE3 surface expression. To investigate the signaling mechanisms involved in modulation of NHE3 activity by DPPIV, we used inhibitors of protein kinase pathways known to regulate NHE3. Whereas the PKA inhibitor H-89 failed to block the effect of DPPIV inhibitors, the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein alone caused a decrement in NHE3 activity very similar in magnitude to that caused by P32/98. We also found that the effects of genistein and P32/98 on NHE3 activity were not additive. In contrast, forskolin/IBMX and P32/98 had additive inhibitory effects on NHE3 activity. These findings suggested that the effect of DPPIV inhibitors to reduce NHE3 activity results from inhibition of a tyrosine kinase signaling pathway rather than by activation of PKA. We conclude that DPPIV plays an unexpected role in modulating Na+/H+exchange mediated by NHE3 in proximal tubule cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana C C Girardi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8029, USA
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25
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Van der Veken P, Senten K, Kertèsz I, De Meester I, Lambeir AM, Maes MB, Scharpé S, Haemers A, Augustyns K. Fluoro-Olefins as Peptidomimetic Inhibitors of Dipeptidyl Peptidases. J Med Chem 2004; 48:1768-80. [PMID: 15771423 DOI: 10.1021/jm0495982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The feasibility of the fluoro-olefin function as a peptidomimetic group in inhibitors for dipeptidyl peptidase IV and II (DPP IV and DPP II) is investigated by evaluation of N-substituted Gly-Psi[CF=C]pyrrolidines, Gly-Psi[CF=C]piperidines, and Gly-Psi[CF=C](2-cyano)pyrrolidines. Of this later class, the (Z)- and (E)-fluoro-olefin analogues were prepared and chemical stability in comparison with the parent amide was checked. Most of these compounds exhibited a strong binding preference toward DPP II with IC(50) values in the low micromolar range, while only low DPP IV inhibitory potential is seen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter Van der Veken
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Medical Biochemistry, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium
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26
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann E Weber
- Merck Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 2000, Rahway, New Jersey 07065, USA.
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Stöckel-Maschek A, Stiebitz B, Koelsch R, Neubert K. A continuous fluorimetric assay for aminopeptidase P detailed analysis of product inhibition. Anal Biochem 2003; 322:60-7. [PMID: 14705781 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2697(03)00464-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2003] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Aminopeptidase P (APP; EC 3.4.11.9) is a proline-specific peptidase hydrolyzing N-terminal Xaa-Pro peptide bonds. On the basis of its unique substrate specificity it is difficult to determine enzyme activity and to estimate potential enzyme inhibitors. In this report, we describe the synthesis of a new fluorogenic substrate to assay APP. The substrate was characterized using Escherichia coli APP and rat intestine APP. The compound contains the fluorogenic 2-aminobenzoyl residue and 4-nitroanilide as internal quencher. Both enzymes hydrolyze the substrate Lys(N(epsilon)-2-aminobenzoyl)-Pro-Pro-4-nitroanilide at the Lys-Pro peptide bond with Km values in the micromolar range. Lys(N(epsilon)-2-aminobenzoyl)-Pro-Pro-4-nitroanilide is the best substrate of APP from rat intestine that is known with a Km value of 3.54 microM and a second-order rate constant of 1,142,000 M(-1) s(-1). Unfortunately, product inhibition occurs. Inhibition studies using the hydrolysis product Pro-Pro-4-nitroanilide demonstrate a linear mixed-type mechanism with a K(i) value of 20.8 microM and an alpha value of 5.1 for rat APP and a K(i) value of 76.1 microM and an alpha value of 0.4 for E. coli APP, respectively. Furthermore, the hydrolysis of the fluorogenic APP substrate catalyzed by prolyl oligopeptidase was investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Stöckel-Maschek
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str. 3, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
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Senten K, Van der Veken P, De Meester I, Lambeir AM, Scharpé S, Haemers A, Augustyns K. Design, Synthesis, and SAR of Potent and Selective Dipeptide-Derived Inhibitors for Dipeptidyl Peptidases. J Med Chem 2003; 46:5005-14. [PMID: 14584950 DOI: 10.1021/jm0308803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this paper we report the systematic search for new, potent, and selective DPP II inhibitors. A study of the structure-activity relationship was conducted starting from aminoacyl pyrrolidides as lead compounds. Rational exploration of the P(1) and P(2) building blocks led to the discovery of some very potent DPP II inhibitors which can be characterized by their high selectivity for DPP II with regard to DPP IV. Dab-Pip and Dab-Pip-2-CN were selected as the most promising inhibitors (IC(50) nM range) and will enable us to study the physiological role of DPP II and to differentiate between DPP II and DPP IV in biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristel Senten
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Antwerp (UIA), Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium
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Lambeir AM, Durinx C, Scharpé S, De Meester I. Dipeptidyl-peptidase IV from bench to bedside: an update on structural properties, functions, and clinical aspects of the enzyme DPP IV. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2003; 40:209-94. [PMID: 12892317 DOI: 10.1080/713609354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 699] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Dipeptidyl-peptidase IV/CD26 (DPP IV) is a cell-surface protease belonging to the prolyloligopeptidase family. It selectively removes the N-terminal dipeptide from peptides with proline or alanine in the second position. Apart from its catalytic activity, it interacts with several proteins, for instance, adenosine deaminase, the HIV gp120 protein, fibronectin, collagen, the chemokine receptor CXCR4, and the tyrosine phosphatase CD45. DPP IV is expressed on a specific set of T lymphocytes, where it is up-regulated after activation. It is also expressed in a variety of tissues, primarily on endothelial and epithelial cells. A soluble form is present in plasma and other body fluids. DPP IV has been proposed as a diagnostic or prognostic marker for various tumors, hematological malignancies, immunological, inflammatory, psychoneuroendocrine disorders, and viral infections. DPP IV truncates many bioactive peptides of medical importance. It plays a role in glucose homeostasis through proteolytic inactivation of the incretins. DPP IV inhibitors improve glucose tolerance and pancreatic islet cell function in animal models of type 2 diabetes and in diabetic patients. The role of DPP IV/ CD26 within the immune system is a combination of its exopeptidase activity and its interactions with different molecules. This enables DPP IV/CD26 to serve as a co-stimulatory molecule to influence T cell activity and to modulate chemotaxis. DPP IV is also implicated in HIV-1 entry, malignant transformation, and tumor invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Marie Lambeir
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk, Belgium.
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30
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Liang AM, Light DR, Kochanny M, Rumennik G, Trinh L, Lentz D, Post J, Morser J, Snider M. Discovery and characterization of a potent and selective non-amidine inhibitor of human factor Xa. Biochem Pharmacol 2003; 65:1407-18. [PMID: 12732352 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(03)00084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Benzothiophene-anthranilamide 1 (3-chloro-N-[2-[[(4-fluorophenyl)amino]carbonyl]-4-methylphenyl]benzo[b]thiophene-2-carboxamide) was discovered by high throughput screening to be a highly potent and selective non-amidine inhibitor of human factor Xa with a K(i) of 15+/-4nM. Compound 1 is a selective inhibitor of human factor Xa as suggested by the K(i)((app)) determined for nine other human serine proteases and bovine trypsin. The activity of reconstituted human prothrombinase complex was inhibited by compound 1 when assayed in physiological concentrations of the substrate prothrombin. However, 27-fold higher inhibitor concentrations were needed to achieve the same level of inhibition than were required for the inhibition of free factor Xa, due in part to non-specific binding of the inhibitor to phospholipid under the assay conditions. Failure to demonstrate enzymatic cleavage of compound 1 suggests that compound 1 is solely an inhibitor rather than a substrate for factor Xa. The inhibition of factor Xa by compound 1 was reversible upon dilution of the enzyme/inhibitor mixture. Analyses of the inhibition mechanism with Dixon, Cornish-Bowden, and Lineweaver-Burk plots showed that compound 1 is a linear mixed-type inhibitor with 5-fold higher affinity for free factor Xa than the factor Xa/substrate complex. The linear mixed-type inhibition suggests that compound 1 binds to the active site region of factor Xa, but its binding cannot be fully displaced by the substrate S2222 (1:1 mixture of N-benzoyl-Ile-Glu-Gly-Arg-p-nitroanilide and N-benzoyl-Ile-Glu(gamma-OMe)-Gly-Arg-p-nitroanilide hydrochloride). Thus, the inhibition mechanism for compound 1 is novel compared to most serine protease inhibitors including amidine-containing factor Xa inhibitors, which rely on binding to the S1 pocket of the enzyme active site. Compound 1 represents an attractive, novel structural template for further development of efficacious, safe, and potentially orally active human factor Xa inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Liang
- Berlex Biosciences, 2600 Hilltop Drive, P.O. Box 4099, Richmond, CA 94806-0099, USA.
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31
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Lambeir AM, Durinx C, Scharpé S, De Meester I. Dipeptidyl-Peptidase IV from Bench to Bedside: An Update on Structural Properties, Functions, and Clinical Aspects of the Enzyme DPP IV. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2003. [DOI: 10.1080/713609354/?{alert(1)}] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2022]
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32
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Senten K, Van der Veken P, Bal G, De Meester I, Lambeir AM, Scharpé S, Bauvois B, Haemers A, Augustyns K. Development of potent and selective dipeptidyl peptidase II inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2002; 12:2825-8. [PMID: 12270155 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(02)00603-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Structure-activity investigations of product-like dipeptide analogues lacking the C-terminal carbonyl function resulted in potent and selective dipeptidyl peptidase II (DPP II) inhibitors. Dab-Pip has an IC(50)=0.13 microM for DPP II and a 7600-fold selectivity with respect to DPP IV. This compound will be highly valuable for the investigation of the biochemical function of DPP II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristel Senten
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Antwerp (UIA), Universiteitsplein 1, Antwerpen, Belgium
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Hauser F, Strassner J, Schaller A. Cloning, expression, and characterization of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) aminopeptidase P. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:31732-7. [PMID: 11423553 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m103179200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A cDNA (LeAPP2) was cloned from tomato coding for a 654 amino acid protein of 72.7 kDa. The deduced amino acid sequence was >40% identical with that of mammalian aminopeptidase P, a metalloexopeptidase. All amino acids reported to be important for binding of the active site metals and catalytic activity, respectively, were conserved between LeAPP2 and its mammalian homologues. LeAPP2 was expressed in Escherichia coli in N-terminal fusion with glutathione S-transferase and was purified from bacterial extracts. LeAPP2 was verified as an aminopeptidase P, hydrolyzing the amino-terminal Xaa-Pro bonds of bradykinin and substance P. LeAPP2 also exhibited endoproteolytic activity cleaving, albeit at a reduced rate, the internal -Phe-Gly bond of substance P. Apparent K(m) (15.2 +/- 2.4 microm) and K(m)/k(cat) (0.94 +/- 0.11 mm(-1) x s(-1)) values were obtained for H-Lys(Abz)-Pro-Pro-pNA as the substrate. LeAPP2 activity was maximally stimulated by addition of 4 mm MnCl(2) and to some extent also by Mg(2+), Ca(2+), and Co(2+), whereas other divalent metal ions (Cu(2+), Zn(2+)) were inhibitory. Chelating agents and thiol-modifying reagents inhibited the enzyme. The data are consistent with LeAPP2 being a Mn(II)-dependent metalloprotease. This is the first characterization of a plant aminopeptidase P.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Hauser
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich, Universitätstrasse 2, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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Chapter 19. DPP-IV inhibition and therapeutic potential. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-7743(01)36059-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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