CD44 stimulation by fragmented hyaluronic acid induces upregulation and tyrosine phosphorylation of c-Met receptor protein in human chondrosarcoma cells

Hyaluronic Acid as a Modern Approach in Anticancer Therapy-Review

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a linear polysaccharide and crucial component of the extracellular matrix (ECM), maintaining tissue hydration and tension. Moreover, HA contributes to embryonic development, healing, inflammation, and cancerogenesis. This review summarizes new research on the metabolism and interactions of HA with its binding proteins, known as hyaladherins (CD44, RHAMM), revealing the molecular basis for its distinct biological function in the development of cancer. The presence of HA on the surface of tumor cells is a sign of an adverse prognosis. The involvement of HA in malignancy has been extensively investigated using cancer-free naked mole rats as a model. The HA metabolic components are examined for their potential impact on promoting or inhibiting tumor formation, proliferation, invasion, and metastatic spread. High molecular weight HA is associated with homeostasis and protective action due to its ability to preserve tissue integrity. In contrast, low molecular weight HA indicates a pathological condition in the tissue and plays a role in pro-oncogenic activity. A systematic approach might uncover processes related to cancer growth, establish novel prognostic indicators, and identify potential targets for treatment action.

CD44 In Sarcomas: A Comprehensive Review and Future Perspectives

It is widely accepted that the tumor microenvironment, particularly the extracellular matrix, plays an essential role in the development of tumors through the interaction with specific protein-membrane receptors. One of the most relevant proteins in this context is the transmembrane protein CD44. The role of CD44 in tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis has been well established in many cancers, although a comprehensive review concerning its role in sarcomas has not been published. CD44 is overexpressed in most sarcomas and several in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown a direct effect on tumor progression, dissemination, and drug resistance. Moreover, CD44 has been revealed as a useful marker for prognostic and diagnostic (CD44v6 isoform) in osteosarcoma. Besides, some innovative treatments such as HA-functionalized liposomes therapy have become an excellent CD44-mediated intracellular delivery system for osteosarcoma. Unfortunately, the reduced number of studies deciphering the prognostic/diagnostic value of CD44 in other sarcoma subgroups, neither than osteosarcoma, in addition to the low number of patients involved in those studies, have produced inconclusive results. In this review, we have gone through the information available on the role of CD44 in the development, maintenance, and progression of sarcomas, analyzing their implications at the prognostic, therapeutic, and mechanistic levels. Moreover, we illustrate how research involving the specific role of CD44 in the different sarcoma subgroups could suppose a chance to advance towards a more innovative perspective for novel therapies and future clinical trials.

CD44 collaborates with ERBB2 mediate radiation resistance via p38 phosphorylation and DNA homologous recombination pathway in prostate cancer

CD44, a glycoprotein, has been reported to have relationship with resistance to radiation in prostate cancer (Cap) cells. However, its molecular mechanism remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that inhibited CD44 enhanced the radiosentivity in Cap cells. It has been hypothesized that CD44 combine with ERBB2 and activate downstream phosphated protein to mediate DNA damage repair. Therefore, we conducted a detailed analysis of effects of radiation by clonogenic assay and immunofluorescence stain for p-H2AX foci. The downstream of CD44/ERBB2 and DNA damage repair proteins was detected by western blot. The results reveal that CD44 interacted with ERBB2, the downstream of CD44/ERBB2 was p-p38 when Cap cells were irradiated. Among the pathways, homologous recombination (HR) related proteins Mre11 and Rad50 were involved in CD44/ERBB2/p-p38 mediated radioresistance in Cap. In conclusion, CD44 could stabilize ERBB2 and co-activate p-p38 expression then promote the DNA damage repair by HR pathway, which finally contribute to the radioresistance of CaP.

Dual targeting system by supramolecular complex of folate-conjugated methyl-β-cyclodextrin with adamantane-grafted hyaluronic acid for the treatment of colorectal cancer

In our previous study, we demonstrated that folate-appended methyl‑β‑cyclodextrin (FA-M-β-CyD) was a promising antitumor agent for the treatment of folate receptor-α (FR-α)-expressing tumors. In the present study, to enhance the antitumor effect of FA-M-β-CyD against FR-α- and CD44-expressing colorectal cancer cells, we synthesized a dual targeting supramolecular complex composed of FA-M-β-CyD and adamantane-grafted hyaluronic acid (Ad-HA). The supramolecular complex of Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD showed higher cytotoxic activity in HCT116 cells (FR-α (+), CD44 (+)), a human colon cancer cell line, than FA-M-β-CyD alone. In addition, the cytotoxic activity of Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD was significantly impaired by the addition of FA and HA, as inhibitors of FR-α and CD44, respectively. Furthermore, tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate (TRITC)-labeled FA-M-β-CyD was efficiently internalized into HCT116 cells through supramolecular complexation with Ad-HA, compared to that of TRITC-FA-M-β-CyD alone. Additionally, Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD induced mitophagy in HCT116 cells. These results suggest that Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD targeted HCT116 cells, as well as induced mitophagy-mediated cell death. Notably, an intravenous injection of the Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD complex in a mouse model of colorectal cancer significantly ameliorated the growth of tumor polyps. Collectively, these results suggest that Ad-HA/FA-M-β-CyD has antiproliferation effects in tumors, based on the dual targeting activity.

Supramolecular Complex of Methyl-β-cyclodextrin with Adamantane-Grafted Hyaluronic Acid as a Novel Antitumor Agent

Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (M-β-CyD) exhibits cytotoxic activity, and has the potentials as an antitumor agent. However, a tumor-selectivity of M-β-CyD is low, leading to low antitumor activity and the adverse effects. Meanwhile, hyaluronic acid (HA) is known as a promising tumor targeting ligand, because various cancer cells overexpress CD44, a HA-binding glycoprotein. In the present study, to develop a tumor-selective delivery system for M-β-CyD, we designed a supramolecular complex of M-β-CyD with adamantane-grafted HA (Ad-HA/M-β-CyD) and evaluated it as a tumor-selective antitumor agent. M-β-CyD formed a stable complex with Ad-HA (K_c>10⁴ M^-1). In addition, Ad-HA/M-β-CyD formed slightly a negative-charged nanoparticle with ca. 140 nm of a particle size, indicating the favorable physicochemical properties for antitumor agents. Ad-HA/M-β-CyD showed the superior cytotoxic activity via CD44-mediated endosomal pathways in HCT116 cells (CD44(+)), a human colon cancer cell line. In addition, cytotoxic activity of Ad-HA/M-β-CyD was induced by apoptosis. These results suggest that Ad-HA/M-β-CyD has the potentials as a tumor-selective supramolecular antitumor agent.

A Trickster in Disguise: Hyaluronan's Ambivalent Roles in the Matrix

Hyaluronan (HA) is a simple but diverse glycosaminoglycan. It plays a major role in aging, cellular senescence, cancer, and tissue homeostasis. In which way HA affects the surrounding tissues greatly depends on the molecular weight of HA. Whereas high molecular weight HA is associated with homeostasis and protective effects, HA fragments tend to be linked to the pathologic state. Furthermore, the interaction of HA with its binding partners, the hyaladherins, such as CD44, is essential for sustaining tissue integrity and is likewise related to cancer. The naked mole rat, a rodent species, possesses a special form of very high molecular weight (vHMW) HA, which is associated with the extraordinary cancer resistance and longevity of those animals. This review addresses HA and its diverse facets: from HA synthesis to degradation, from oligomeric HA to vHMW-HA and from its beneficial properties to the involvement in pathologies. We further discuss the functions of HA in the naked mole rat and compare them to human conditions. Though intensively researched, this simple polymer bears some secrets that may hold the key for a better understanding of cellular processes and the development of diseases, such as cancer.

Hyaluronic Acid--an "Old" Molecule with "New" Functions: Biosynthesis and Depolymerization of Hyaluronic Acid in Bacteria and Vertebrate Tissues Including during Carcinogenesis

Hyaluronic acid is an evolutionarily ancient molecule commonly found in vertebrate tissues and capsules of some bacteria. Here we review modern data regarding structure, properties, and biological functions of hyaluronic acid in mammals and Streptococcus spp. bacteria. Various aspects of biogenesis and degradation of hyaluronic acid are discussed, biosynthesis and degradation metabolic pathways for glycosaminoglycan together with involved enzymes are described, and vertebrate and bacterial hyaluronan synthase genes are characterized. Special attention is given to the mechanisms underlying the biological action of hyaluronic acid as well as the interaction between polysaccharide and various proteins. In addition, all known signaling pathways involving hyaluronic acid are outlined. Impaired hyaluronic acid metabolism, changes in biopolymer molecular weight, hyaluronidase activity, and enzyme isoforms often accompany carcinogenesis. The interaction between cells and hyaluronic acid from extracellular matrix that may be important during malignant change is discussed. An expected role for high molecular weight hyaluronic acid in resistance of naked mole rat to oncologic diseases and the protective role of hyaluronic acid in bacteria are discussed.

Hyaluronan - a functional and structural sweet spot in the tissue microenvironment

Transition from homeostatic to reactive matrix remodeling is a fundamental adaptive tissue response to injury, inflammatory disease, fibrosis, and cancer. Alterations in architecture, physical properties, and matrix composition result in changes in biomechanical and biochemical cellular signaling. The dynamics of pericellular and extracellular matrices, including matrix protein, proteoglycan, and glycosaminoglycan modification are continually emerging as essential regulatory mechanisms underlying cellular and tissue function. Nevertheless, the impact of matrix organization on inflammation and immunity in particular and the consequent effects on tissue healing and disease outcome are arguably under-studied aspects of adaptive stress responses. Herein, we review how the predominant glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) contributes to the structure and function of the tissue microenvironment. Specifically, we examine the evidence of HA degradation and the generation of biologically active smaller HA fragments in pathological settings in vivo. We discuss how HA fragments versus nascent HA via alternate receptor-mediated signaling influence inflammatory cell recruitment and differentiation, resident cell activation, as well as tumor growth, survival, and metastasis. Finally, we discuss how HA fragmentation impacts restoration of normal tissue function and pathological outcomes in disease.

Inhibition of fatty acid synthase attenuates CD44-associated signaling and reduces metastasis in colorectal cancer

Fatty acid synthase (FASN) and ATP-citrate lyase, key enzymes of de novo lipogenesis, are significantly upregulated and activated in many cancers and portend poor prognosis. Even though the role of lipogenesis in providing proliferative and survival advantages to cancer cells has been described, the impact of aberrant activation of lipogenic enzymes on cancer progression remains unknown. In this study, we found that elevated expression of FASN is associated with advanced stages of colorectal cancer (CRC) and liver metastasis, suggesting that it may play a role in progression of CRC to metastatic disease. Targeted inhibition of lipogenic enzymes abolished expression of CD44, a transmembrane protein associated with metastases in several cancers including CRC. In addition, inhibition of lipogenic enzymes and reduced expression of CD44 attenuated the activation of MET, Akt, FAK, and paxillin, which are known to regulate adhesion, migration, and invasion. These changes were consistent with an observed decrease in migration and adhesion of CRC cells in functional assays and with reorganization of actin cytoskeleton upon FASN inhibition. Despite the modest effect of FASN inhibition on tumor growth in xenografts, attenuation of lipogenesis completely abolished establishment of hepatic metastasis and formation of secondary metastasis. Together, our findings suggest that targeting de novo lipogenesis may be a potential treatment strategy for advanced CRC.

Udp-glucose dehydrogenase as a novel field-specific candidate biomarker of prostate cancer

Uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucose dehydrogenase (UGDH) catalyzes the oxidation of UDP-glucose to yield UDP-glucuronic acid, a precursor for synthesis of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans that promote aggressive prostate cancer (PC) progression. The purpose of our study was to determine if the UGDH expression in normal appearing acini (NAA) from cancerous glands is a candidate biomarker for PC field disease/effect assayed by quantitative fluorescence imaging analysis (QFIA). A polyclonal antibody to UGDH was titrated to saturation binding and fluorescent microscopic images acquired from fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue slices were quantitatively analyzed. Specificity of the assay was confirmed by Western blot analysis and competitive inhibition of tissue labeling with the recombinant UGDH. Reproducibility of the UGDH measurements was high within and across analytical runs. Quantification of UGDH by QFIA and Reverse-Phase Protein Array analysis were strongly correlated (r = 0.97), validating the QFIA measurements. Analysis of cancerous acini (CA) and NAA from PC patients vs. normal acini (NA) from noncancerous controls (32 matched pairs) revealed significant (p < 0.01) differences, with CA (increased) vs. NA, NAA (decreased) vs. NA and CA (increased) vs. NAA. Areas under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curves were 0.68 (95% CI: 0.59-0.83) for NAA and 0.71 (95% CI: 0.59-0.83) for CA (both vs. NA). These results support the UGDH content in prostatic acini as a novel candidate biomarker that may complement the development of a multi-biomarker panel for detecting PC within the tumor adjacent field on a histologically normal biopsy specimen.

Ezrin, a key component in tumor metastasis

Identification of the key regulatory molecules in metastasis is crucial for understanding tumor dissemination and for the development of novel interventions. The recent identification of ezrin as a necessary component in the metastasis of osteosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma is, therefore, an important advance. Ezrin has been implicated in many roles, for example, as a conduit for signals between metastasis-associated cell-surface molecules and signal transduction components. This suggests that ezrin and, potentially, other members of the ERM (ezrin-radixin-moesin) family have key roles in the coordination of signals and cellular complexes that are required for the successful metastasis of these and other malignancies.

TC1(C8orf4) correlates with Wnt/beta-catenin target genes and aggressive biological behavior in gastric cancer

PURPOSE

We have recently reported that TC1(C8orf4), a small protein present in vertebrates, functions as a novel regulator of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway. TC1 up-regulates beta-catenin target genes that are implicated in the aggressive behavior of cancers. Our aim was to investigate the clinical and pathobiological relevance of TC1 in gastric cancer.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The expression of TC1 was analyzed using tissue microarray in correlation with clinicopathologic variables and beta-catenin target genes in 299 gastric cancers. The biological effects of TC1 on Matrigel invasiveness and the proliferation of cancer cells were analyzed. TC1 expression was analyzed in gastric cancer cells after serial peritoneal implantation in nude mice.

RESULTS

TC1 expression was present in 111 carcinomas (37.1%), correlating with tumor stage (P < 0.002), poor differentiation (P < 0.001), lymphatic infiltration (P < 0.005), and lymph node metastasis (P < 0.006). TC1 also correlated with poor survival in diffuse type carcinomas (P < 0.0001), and even in patients with lymph node metastasis (P < 0.0014). TC1 also correlated with the expression of beta-catenin target genes including laminin gamma2, metalloproteinase-7 and metalloproteinase-14, cyclin D1, c-Met, and CD44. TC1 enhanced Matrigel invasiveness and proliferation, supporting its role in the aggressive biological behavior of cancers. The expression of TC1 increased in MKN45 cells after serial peritoneal seeding in nude mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggests that TC1 coordinates the up-regulation of Wnt/beta-catenin target genes that are implicated in the aggressive biological behavior of cancers. The strong clinical relevance, even in patients with lymph node metastasis, suggested that TC1 could be a potential therapeutic target of advanced gastric cancers.

Hepatocyte growth factor, its receptor, and their potential value in cancer therapies

Hepatocyte growth factor plays multiple roles in cancer, by acting as a motility and invasion stimulating factor, promoting metastasis and tumour growth. Furthermore, it acts as a powerful angiogenic factor. The pivotal role of this factor in cancer has indicated HGF as being a potential target in cancer therapies. The past few years have seen rapid progress in developing tools in targeting HGF, in the context of cancer therapies, including development of antagonists, small compounds, antibodies and genetic approaches. The current article discusses the potential value of HGF and its receptor as targets in cancer therapies, the current development in anti-HGF research, and the clinical value of HGF in prognosis and treatment.

Alteration of polysaccharide size distribution of a vertebrate hyaluronan synthase by mutation

Hyaluronan (HA) is a nonsulfated glycosaminoglycan that has long been known to play structural roles in vertebrates. Recently, it has become increasingly obvious that this linear polysaccharide has many more uses than simply scaffolding or space filler. HA has been found to be involved in development, cell signaling, cell motility, and metastasis. These roles are often dictated by the length of the HA polymer, which can vary from a few to about 10,000 sugar residues in length. Three distinct isoforms of HA synthase exist in mammals. It has been shown previously by others that each isoform produces HA that differs in size distribution, but the regulatory mechanism is not yet known. Mutations have been described that alter the size distribution of the HA produced by the streptococcal HA synthases. We show that by mutating one particular amino acid residue of a vertebrate HA synthase, depending on the introduced side chain, the size of HA produced can be either reduced or increased. We postulate that several cysteine residues and a serine residue may be involved in binding directly or indirectly to the nascent HA chain. These data support the theory that the relative strength of the interaction between the catalyst and the polymer may be a major factor in HA size control.

Overexpression of the c-Met/HGF receptor and its prognostic significance in uterine cervix carcinomas

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the significance of the c-Met/hepatocyte growth factor receptor expression in invasive cervical carcinoma.

METHODS

Ninety-Four patients with FIGO stage 1B disease, treated primarily with surgery, were studied immunohistochemically. Of the cases, 67 were squamous carcinoma and 27 were nonsquamous (10 were adenocarcinoma, 15 were adenosquamous carcinoma, and 2 were indifferentiated carcinoma). Immunohistochemically stained c-Met slides of primary malignancies were evaluated blindly of clinical outcome and other histopathological factors.

RESULTS

Overexpression of c-Met was found in 56 of 94 specimens. Primary tumors which show recurrences were found to be c-Met overexpressors. Univariate survival analysis (Kaplan-Meier) showed that c-Met overexpression is significantly correlated with disease-free survival. Moreover the diameter of the primary tumor, deep cervical stromal invasion, presence of metastatic lymph node, number of metastatic lymph nodes and c-Met overexpression were significantly correlated with overall 5-year survival. Furthermore multivariant analysis with Cox regression showed that the presence of metastatic lymph node and immunopositivity for c-Met are significantly correlated with overall survival, while c-Met overexpression was found to be an independent variable for disease-free survival.

CONCLUSION

These results reveal that c-Met oncogene overexpression is an important parameter for disease progression, recurrence, and survival in early-stage invasive uterine cervix carcinomas.