Chitosan-DNA nanoparticles as gene carriers: synthesis, characterization and transfection efficiency

Drug delivery strategies for local immunomodulation in transplantation: Bridging the translational gap

Drug delivery strategies for local immunomodulation hold tremendous promise compared to current clinical gold-standard systemic immunosuppression as they could improve the benefit to risk ratio of life-saving or life-enhancing transplants. Such strategies have facilitated prolonged graft survival in animal models at lower drug doses while minimizing off-target effects. Despite the promising outcomes in preclinical animal studies, progression of these strategies to clinical trials has faced challenges. A comprehensive understanding of the translational barriers is a critical first step towards clinical validation of effective immunomodulatory drug delivery protocols proven for safety and tolerability in pre-clinical animal models. This review overviews the current state-of-the-art in local immunomodulatory strategies for transplantation and outlines the key challenges hindering their clinical translation.

Application of chitosan as nano carrier in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), encompassing ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), is characterized by persistent and recurrent gastrointestinal inflammation. Conventional IBD therapies often involve the use of antibiotics, NSAIDs, biological agents, and immunomodulators. While these medications can mitigate acute inflammatory symptoms, their long-term efficacy is frequently compromised due to cumulative toxic effects. In recent years, significant attention has shifted toward nanoparticle (NP)-based therapies as potential alternatives for IBD management. Various drug delivery strategies, including those targeting microbiota interactions, ligand-receptor binding, pH sensitivity, biodegradability, pressure response, and specific charge and size parameters, have been explored and optimized in animal studies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of chitosan NP-mediated drug delivery systems for IBD treatment. Additionally, it will discuss the prevailing challenges and propose future research directions to advance chitosan NP-based therapeutic strategies for IBD.

Polymer-Based Nanoparticles for Inner Ear Targeted Trans Differentiation Gene Therapy

Hearing loss is a significant disability that often goes under recognised, largely due to poor identification, prevention, and treatment. Steps are being made to amend these pitfalls in the investigation of hearing loss, however, the development of a cure to reverse advanced forms remains distant. This review details some current advances in the treatment of hearing loss, with a particular focus on genetic-based nanotechnology and how it may provide a useful avenue for further research. This review presents a broad background on the pathophysiology of hearing loss and some current interventions. We also highlight some potential genes that may be useful in the amelioration of hearing loss. Pathways of cellular differentiation from stem or supporting cell to functional hair cell are covered in detail, as this mechanism represents a key means of regenerating these cell types. Overall, we believe that polymer-based nanotechnology coupled with novel excipients represents a useful area of further research in the treatment of hearing loss, although further studies in this area are required.

SOX9 functionalized scaffolds as a barrier to against cartilage fibrosis

Hyaline cartilage regeneration will bring evangel to millions of people suffered from cartilage diseases. However, uncontrollable cartilage fibrosis and matrix mineralization are the primary causes of cartilage regeneration failure in many tissue engineering scaffolds. This study presents a new attempt to avoid endochondral ossification or fibrosis in cartilage regeneration therapy by establishing biochemical regulatory area. Here, SOX9 expression plasmids are assembled in cellulose gels by chitosan gene vectors to fabricate SOX9+ functionalized scaffolds. RT-qPCR, western blot and biochemical analysis all show that the SOX9 reinforcement strategy can enhance chondrogenic specific proteins expression and promote GAG production. Notably, the interference from SOX9 has resisted osteogenic inducing significantly, showing an inhibition of COL1, OPN and OC production, and the inhibition efficiency was about 58.4 %, 22.8 % and 76.9 % respectively. In vivo study, implantation of these scaffolds with BMSCs can induce chondrogenic differentiation and resist endochondral ossification effectively. Moreover, specific SOX9+ functionalized area of the gel exhibited the resistance to matrix mineralization, indicating the special biochemical functional area for cartilage regeneration. These results indicate that this strategy is effective for promoting the hyaline cartilage regeneration and avoiding cartilage fibrosis, which provides a new insight to the future development of cartilage regeneration scaffolds.

One-pot Formulation of Cationic Oligochitosan Coated Nanoparticles via Photo- Polymerization Induced Self-Assembly

During last few decades, oligochitosan (OCS)-coated nanoparticles have received great interest for nanomedicine, food and environment applications. However, their current formulation techniques are time-consuming with multi-synthesis/purification steps and sometimes require the use of organic solvents, crosslinkers and surfactants. Herein, we report a facile and rapid one-pot synthesis of OCS-based nanoparticles using photo-initiated reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer polymerization-induced self-assembly (Photo-RAFT PISA) under UV-irradiation at room temperature. To achieve this, OCS was first functionalized by a chain transfer agent (CTA) resulting in a macromolecular chain transfer agent (OCS-CTA), which will act as a reactive electrostatic/steric stabilizer. Owing to its UV-sensitivity, OCS-CTA was then used as photo-iniferter to initiate the polymerization of 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate (HPMA) in aqueous acidic buffer, resulting in OCS-g-PHPMA amphiphilic grafted copolymers which self-assemble into nano-objects. Transmission electron microscopy and light scattering analysis reveal formation of spherical nanostructures.

Nano-delivery platforms for bacterial gene transformation: suitability and challenges

Nano-scale particles (NPs) have gained increased interest as non-viral vectors for nucleic acid delivery due to their ability to penetrate through unabraded cell membranes. The previous studies performed have evaluated the nanomaterials for their microbial transformation proficiency but have not compared the relative efficacy. The present study aims to identify the most proficient nano-delivery vehicle among the chemically synthesized/functionalized non-metal oxide, metal/metal oxide, and carbon-based (carbon nanotube (CNT), graphene oxide (GO)) nanomaterial(s) (NMs) for the transformation of two gram-negative bacteria, i.e., Escherichia coli and Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The microscopy and spectroscopy studies helped to identify the interaction, adhesion patterns, transformation efficiencies, better delivery, and expression of the target gfp gene by use of NMs. Loading of pgfp on all NMs imparted protection to DNAse I attack except ZnO NPs with maximum by chitosan, layered double hydroxide (LDH), and GO NM-plasmid DNA conjugates. The CNTs and GO significantly enhanced the extra- and intra-cellular protein content, respectively, in both bacteria. However, GO and CNT significantly decreased the cell viability in a time-dependent manner while AuNPs exhibited negligible cell toxicity. Therefore, this study identified the comparative efficiency of metal/metal oxide, non-metal oxide, and carbon nanomaterials with AuNPs as the most biosafe while LDH and chitosan NPs being the most proficient alternative tools for the genetic transformation of gram-negative bacteria by simple incubation method.

Inhibition of the Naja naja venom toxicity by polymeric nanoparticles loaded with Leucas aspera methanolic extract

Background

Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Developing effective treatments can make a significant contribution to global health efforts and public health initiatives. To reduce mortality due to snakebite, there is an immediate need to explore novel and effective treatment methodologies. In that context, nanoparticle-based drug delivery is gaining a lot of attention. Hydrophilic nanoparticles are suitable for the delivery of therapeutic peptides, proteins, and antigens.

Methods

The present investigation is aimed at evaluating the anti-ophidian potential of the methanolic extract of the ethno-medicinal herb Leucas aspera (Willd.) loaded within chitosan nanoparticles (CNP-LA), against the Indian cobra (Naja naja) venom enzymes. For this purpose, nanoparticles were prepared using the ionic gelation method to enhance the efficacy of the extract. The physicochemical and structural features of nanoparticles were investigated using dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier-transform Infrared (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques.

Results

It was found that CNP-LA has an average size of 260 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.132 (PDI) and zeta potential of 34.7 mV, with an encapsulation efficiency of 92.46%. The in vitro release study was performed at pH 5.0 and 7.4. Furthermore, in vitro studies indicated that CNP-LA inhibited the phospholipase A2, hemolytic, and caseinolytic activities of Naja naja venom with the percentage inhibition of 92.5%, 83.9%, and 94.5%, respectively.

Conclusion

This is the first report on the application of herbal methanolic extract loaded within chitosan nanoparticles for neutralizing snake venom enzymes with increased efficiency.

Non-viral and viral delivery systems for hemophilia A therapy: recent development and prospects

Recent advancements have focused on enhancing factor VIII half-life and refining its delivery methods, despite the well-established knowledge that factor VIII deficiency is the main clotting protein lacking in hemophilia. Consequently, both viral and non-viral delivery systems play a crucial role in enhancing the quality of life for hemophilia patients. The utilization of viral vectors and the manipulation of non-viral vectors through targeted delivery are significant advancements in the field of cellular and molecular therapies for hemophilia. These developments contribute to the progression of treatment strategies and hold great promise for improving the overall well-being of individuals with hemophilia. This review study comprehensively explores the application of viral and non-viral vectors in cellular (specifically T cell) and molecular therapy approaches, such as RNA, monoclonal antibody (mAb), and CRISPR therapeutics, with the aim of addressing the challenges in hemophilia treatment. By examining these innovative strategies, the study aims to shed light on potential solutions to enhance the efficacy and outcomes of hemophilia therapy.

Polysaccharides as a Hydrophilic Building Block of Amphiphilic Block Copolymers for the Conception of Nanocarriers

Polysaccharides are gaining increasing attention for their relevance in the production of sustainable materials. In the domain of biomaterials, polysaccharides play an important role as hydrophilic components in the design of amphiphilic block copolymers for the development of drug delivery systems, in particular nanocarriers due to their outstanding biocompatibility, biodegradability, and structural versatility. The presence of a reducing end in polysaccharide chains allows for the synthesis of polysaccharide-based block copolymers. Compared with polysaccharide-based graft copolymers, the structure of block copolymers can be more precisely controlled. In this review, the synthesis methods of polysaccharide-based amphiphilic block copolymers are discussed in detail, taking into consideration the structural characteristics of polysaccharides. Various synthetic approaches, including reductive amination, oxime ligation, and other chain-end modification reactions, are explored. This review also focuses on the advantages of polysaccharides as hydrophilic blocks in polymeric nanocarriers. The structure and unique properties of different polysaccharides such as cellulose, hyaluronic acid, chitosan, alginate, and dextran are described along with examples of their applications as hydrophilic segments in the synthesis of amphiphilic copolymers to construct nanocarriers for sustained drug delivery.

Exploring modified chitosan-based gene delivery technologies for therapeutic advancements

One of the critical steps in gene therapy is the successful delivery of the genes. Immunogenicity and toxicity are major issues for viral gene delivery systems. Thus, non-viral vectors are explored. A cationic polysaccharide like chitosan could be used as a nonviral gene delivery vector owing to its significant interaction with negatively charged nucleic acid and biomembrane, providing effective cellular uptake. However, the native chitosan has issues of targetability, unpacking ability, and solubility along with poor buffer capability, hence requiring modifications for effective use in gene delivery. Modified chitosan has shown that the "proton sponge effect" involved in buffering the endosomal pH results in osmotic swelling owing to the accumulation of a greater amount of proton and chloride along with water. The major challenges include limited exploration of chitosan as a gene carrier, the availability of high-purity chitosan for toxicity reduction, and its immunogenicity. The genetic drugs are in their infancy phase and require further exploration for effective delivery of nucleic acid molecules as FDA-approved marketed formulations soon.

Anti-cancer Effects of a Chitosan Based Nanoformulation Expressing miR-340 on 4T1 Breast Cancer Cells

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression in tumor development, invasion, and metastasis. Herein, miRNA-340 (miR-340) has been shown to play tumor suppressor activity in breast cancer (BC). However, the clinical applications of miRNAs request the development of safe and effective delivery systems capable of protecting nucleic acids from degradation. In this study, biodegradable chitosan nanoparticles incorporating miR-340 plasmid DNA (pDNA) (miR-340 CNPs) were synthesized and characterized. Then, the anti-tumor effects of miR-340 CNPs were investigated using 4T1 BCE cells. The spherical nanoparticles (NPs) with an appropriate mean diameter of around 266 ± 9.3 nm and zeta potential of +17 ± 1.8 mV were successfully prepared. The NPs showed good stability, high entrapment efficiency and a reasonable release behavior, meanwhile their high resistance against enzymatic degradation was verified. Furthermore, NPs demonstrated appropriate transfection efficiency and could induce apoptosis, so had toxicity in 4T1 BCE cells. Also, CD47 expression on the surface of cancer cells was significantly reduced after treatment with miR-340 CNPs. The results showed that miR-340 CNPs augmented the expression of P-27 in BC cells. Furthermore, miR-340 CNPs caused down-regulation of BRP-39 (breast regression protein-39) increasingly suggested as a prognostic biomarker for neoplastic diseases like BC. In conclusion, our data show that miR-340 CNPs can be considered as a promising new platform for BC gene therapy.

"Antimicrobial properties of tissue conditioner modified with chitosan and green-synthesized silver nanoparticles: a promising approach for preventing denture stomatitis"

BACKGROUND

Chitosan is known to inhibit the growth of many bacteria and fungi. Tissue conditioners are commonly used to prevent bone destruction under dentures. However, over time, these materials can become a suitable substrate for microbial growth. One approach to improving dental materials is the use of nanoparticles. This study examined the antifungal properties of chitosan and green technique-synthesized silver nanoparticles in combination with tissue conditioners.

METHODS

Tissue conditioner materials were mixed with chitosan and silver nanoparticles at concentrations of 0.097%, 0.19%, and 0.37%, along with 1.25 ppm Nystatin, and their antimicrobial properties against Candida albicans were investigated. The growth rate was measured after 24 h of incubation at 37 °C. Non-parametric tests, such as the Kruskal-Wallis H test and Mann-Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction, were used for data analysis after verifying that the groups did not have a normal distribution.

RESULTS

Compared with the control and Nystatin groups, the Chitosan-silver groups showed a significant decrease in the number of CFUs of Candida albicans.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of chitosan and silver nanoparticles with tissue conditioner materials is a promising alternative for preventing and treating denture stomatitis. These findings suggest that using very small amounts of nanoparticles in dental materials could effectively prevent microbial growth, which could improve the longevity and efficacy of dental prosthetics and materials.

Protective effect of chitosan-modified rice porous starch loaded catechin on HT-29 cells exposed to lead ion

To explore how chitosan-modified rice porous starch-loaded catechin (CT@RPS/CS) protects HT-29 cells exposed to lead ions.

METHOD

The HT-29 cells were treated differently based on their grouping. The effect of CT@RPS/CS on lead-induced toxicity was evaluated using cell proliferation, apoptosis, oxidative stress index, and cytokine tests.

RESULTS

CT@RPS/CS did not affect the activity, cell apoptosis, oxidative stress level, and related cytokines of HT-29 cells. After exposure to lead, CT@RPS/CS has the potential to enhance cellular activity, minimize apoptosis, and decrease the level of oxidative stress.

DISCUSSION

CT@RPS/CS not only has no toxicity to cells but also adsorbs lead ions, which protects cells.

Interaction mechanism between low molecular weight chitosan nanofilm and functionalized surfaces in aqueous solutions

Low-molecular-weight chitosan (LMW chitosan, <10 kDa) have a significant potential for biomedical applications (e.g., antimicrobial and gene/drug delivery) because of their higher water solubility at pH values ranging from 3.0 to 8.5, compared to that of the high-molecular-weight (>100 kDa) chitosan. A comprehensive understanding of the LMW interaction mechanism with specific functional groups is necessary to predict their binding efficiency to other molecules for effectively utilizing their potential within biological systems. In this study, we used a surface forces apparatus (SFA) to investigate molecular interactions between LMW chitosan and four different functionalized self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) in aqueous solutions at pH values of 3.0, 6.5, and 8.5. Chitosan exhibited the strongest interaction energy with methyl-terminated SAM (CH3-SAM), indicating the significance of hydrophobic interaction. Many chitin/chitosan fibers in nature bind polyphenols (e.g., eumelanin) to form robust composites, which can be attributed to the strong attraction between chitosan and phenyl-SAM, presumably caused by cation-π interactions. These findings demonstrate the potential of modulating the magnitude of the interaction energy by controlling the solution pH and types of targeted functional groups to realize the optimal design of chitosan-based hybrid composites with other biomolecules or synthetic materials.

Formulation of Chitosan-Zein Nano-in-Microparticles for Oral DNA Delivery

Gene delivery via the oral route offers a promising strategy for improving DNA vaccination and gene-based therapy outcomes. The noninvasive nature of oral delivery lends to ease of dosing, which can facilitate convenience and patient compliance. Moreover, oral administration allows for both local and systemic production of therapeutic genes or, in the case of DNA vaccination, mucosal and systemic immunity. Here, we describe the methods to produce a dual biomaterial, oral DNA delivery system composed of chitosan (CS) and zein (ZN). In this system, CS serves to encapsulate and deliver DNA cargo to intestinal cells in the form of CS-DNA nanoparticles (CS-DNA NPs), while ZN is used to form a protective matrix around the CS-DNA NPs that prevent degradation during gastric transit but then degrades to release the CS-DNA NPs for transfection upon entry into the intestines. These particles have demonstrated the ability to effectively protect cargo DNA from simulated gastric degradation in vitro and mediate transgene production in vivo, making them an effective oral gene delivery system.

Chitosan-functionalized bioplatforms and hydrogels in breast cancer: immunotherapy, phototherapy and clinical perspectives

Breast cancer is the most common and malignant tumor among women. Chitosan (CS)-based nanoparticles have been introduced into breast cancer therapy as a way to increase the targeted delivery of drugs and genes to the tumor site. CS nanostructures suppress tumorigenesis by enhancing both the targeted delivery of cargo (drug and gene) and its accumulation in tumor cells. The tumor cells internalize CS-based nanoparticles through endocytosis. Moreover, chitosan nanocarriers can also induce phototherapy-mediated tumor ablation. Smart and multifunctional types of CS nanoparticles, including pH-, light- and redox-responsive nanoparticles, can be used to improve the potential for breast cancer removal. In addition, the acceleration of immunotherapy by CS nanoparticles has also been achieved, and there is potential to develop CS-nanoparticle hydrogels that can be used to suppress tumorigenesis.

Sustainable functionalized chitosan based nano-composites for wound dressings applications: A review

Functionalized chitosan nanocomposites have been studied for wound dressing applications due to their excellent antibacterial and anti-fungal properties. Polysaccharides show excellent antibacterial and drug-release properties and can be utilized for wound healing. In this article, we comprise distinct approaches for chitosan functionalization, such as photosensitizers, dendrimers, graft copolymerization, quaternization, acylation, carboxyalkylation, phosphorylation, sulfation, and thiolation. The current review article has also discussed brief insights on chitosan nanoparticle processing for biomedical applications, including wound dressings. The chitosan nanoparticle preparation technologies have been discussed, focusing on wound dressings owing to their targeted and controlled drug release behavior. The future directions of chitosan research include; a) finding an effective solution for chronic wounds, which are unable to heal completely; b) providing effective wound healing solutions for diabetic wounds and venous leg ulcers; c) to better understanding the wound healing mechanism with such materials which can help provide the optimum solution for wound dressing; d) to provide an improved treatment option for wound healing.

Myricetin encapsulated chitosan nanoformulation for management of type 2 diabetes: Preparation, optimization, characterization and in vivo activity

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a serious and alarming disease attracting widespread attention. It is not a single metabolic disease; over time, it leads to serious disorders, namely, diabetic nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy and several cardiovascular, hepatocellular complications. The increase in T2DM cases in recent times has attracted significant attention. Currently, the medications available have side effects, and injectables are painful, causing trauma to the patients. Therefore, it is imperative to come up with oral delivery. In this background we report here a nanoformulation carrying natural small molecule Myricetin (MYR) encapsulated within Chitosan nanoparticles (CHT-NPs). MYR-CHT-NPs were prepared by ionic gelation method and evaluated using different characterization techniques. The in vitro release of MYR from CHT NPs in different physiological media showed pH dependence. in vivo pharmacodynamic study followed by oral administration in Albino Wistar rats showed better glycaemic control than existing drug. Further, the optimized nanoparticles also exhibited controlled increase in weight as compared to Metformin. The biochemistry profile of rats treated with nanoformulation reduced the levels of several pathological biomarkers, indicating additional benefits of MYR. Histopathological images exhibited no toxicity or changes in the major organs section in contrast to normal control, suggesting safe oral administration of the encapsulated MYR. Thus, we conclude that MYR-CHT-NPs represent an attractive delivery vehicle in improving the blood glucose level with controlled weight and have the potential to be safely administered orally for the management of T2DM.

Evaluation of the effects of chitosan nanoparticles on polyhydroxy butyrate electrospun scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering applications

In this study, we synthesized and incorporated chitosan nanoparticles (Cs) into polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB) electrospun scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering. The Cs nanoparticles were synthesized via an ionic gel interaction between Cs powder and tripolyphosphate (TPP). The mechanical properties, hydrophilicity, and fiber diameter of the PHB scaffolds with varying concentrations of Cs nanoparticles (1-5 wt%) were evaluated. The results of these evaluations showed that the scaffold containing 1 wt% Cs nanoparticles (P1Cs) was the optimum scaffold, with increased ultimate strength from 2.6 to 5.2 MPa and elongation at break from 5.31 % to 12.6 %. Crystallinity, degradation, and cell compatibility were also evaluated. The addition of Cs nanoparticles decreased crystallinity and accelerated hydrolytic degradation. MTT assay results showed that the proliferation of chondrocytes on the scaffold containing 1 wt% Cs nanoparticles were significantly higher than that on pure PHB after 7 days of cultivation. These findings suggest that the electrospun P1Cs scaffold has promising potential as a substrate for cartilage tissue engineering applications. This combination offers a promising approach for the fabrication of biomimetic scaffolds with enhanced mechanical properties, hydrophilicity, and cell compatibility for tissue engineering applications.

Vascular endothelial growth factor protein and gene delivery by novel nanomaterials for promoting liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy

Partial hepatectomy (PH) can lead to severe complications, including liver failure, due to the low regenerative capacity of the remaining liver, especially after extensive hepatectomy. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), whose proliferation occurs more slowly and later than hepatocytes after PH, compose the lining of the hepatic sinusoids, which are the smallest blood vessels in the liver. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), secreted by hepatocytes, promotes LSEC proliferation. Supplementation of exogenous VEGF after hepatectomy also increases the number of LSECs in the remaining liver, thus promoting the reestablishment of the hepatic sinusoids and accelerating liver regeneration. At present, some shortcomings exist in the methods of supplementing exogenous VEGF, such as a low drug concentration in the liver and the reaching of other organs. More-over, VEGF should be administered multiple times and in large doses because of its short half-life. This review summarized the most recent findings on liver regeneration and new strategies for the localized delivery VEGF in the liver.

Formulation and In-Vitro/Ex-Vivo Characterization of Pregelled Hybrid Alginate-Chitosan Microparticles for Ocular Delivery of Ketorolac Tromethamine

Innovative hybrid chitosan-sodium alginate (Ch-Ag) microparticles (MPs) were fabricated using both the ionic gelation method as well as the pre-gelation technique. The hybrid Ch-Ag MPs were studied for size, zeta potential, morphology, mucoadhesion, in-vitro release, corneal permeation, and ocular irritation using lens and corneal epithelial cell lines. The average particle size ranged from 1322 nm to 396 nm. The zeta potential for the prepared formulations showed an increase with increasing Ch concentrations up to a value of >35 mV; the polydispersity index (PDI) of some optimized MPs was around 0.1. Compared to drug-free MPs, ketorolac-loaded Ch-Ag MPs demonstrated a drug proportion-dependent increase in their size. SEM, as well as TEM of KT-loaded MPs, confirmed that the formed particles were quasi-spherical to elliptical in shape. The KT release from the MPs demonstrated a prolonged release profile in comparison to the control KT solution. Further, mucoadhesion studies with porcine mucin revealed that the KT-loaded MPs had effective mucoadhesive properties, and polymeric particles were stable in the presence of mucin. Corneal permeation was studied on bovine eyes, and the results revealed that Ch-based MPs were capable of showing more sustained KT release across the cornea compared with that for the control drug solution. Conclusively, the cytotoxicity assay confirmed that the investigated MPs were non-irritant and could confer protection from direct drug irritation of KT on the ocular surface. The MTT cytotoxicity assay confirmed that KT-loaded MPs showed acceptable and reasonable tolerability with both human lens and corneal epithelial cell lines compared to the control samples.

Mkit: A mobile nucleic acid assay based on a chitosan-modified minimalistic microfluidic chip (CM3-chip) and smartphone

Mobile sensing enabled by MS² technology, which integrates microfluidic and smartphone components, has seen many applications in recent years. In this direction, we developed an MS² platform (an integrated kit) for nucleic acid assay, which included a chitosan-modified minimalistic microfluidic chip (CM³-chip), a smartphone-based fluorescence detector (SF-detector), an APP for imaging and analysis, reagents, and accessories. Once the lysed sample was loaded into the CM³-chip modified by 1% concentration and 200-260 kDa molecular weight of chitosan, the following assay can be completed in approximately 1 h. The Mkit can detect 3 × 10° copies μL^-1 of plasmid DNA and its polymerase chain reaction (PCR) efficiency was 96.8%. The CM³-chip equipped for the Mkit can enrich nucleic acid from the pH = 5 of lysis buffer, instead of using conventional adsorption mediums such as the magnetic beads and silica gel membranes, which could result in unexpected impurity residuals and tedious cleaning operations. In addition, the performance of the Mkit equipped with the pristine chip was demonstrated to perform poorer than that coupled with the CM³-chip in which the enriched nucleic acid can be all used for "in-situ PCR". The universality, selectivity, and user-friendliness of the Mkit were also validated. We finally demonstrated the feasibility of the Mkit for testing artificially prepared infected samples. H5N6 and IAV-infected saliva samples provided the limits of detection of 5 × 10² copies mL^-1 and 3.24 × 10² copies mL^-1 per chamber, respectively. The streamlined assay and compact device should enable the great potential of the Mkit in research and potential diagnostic uses.

On the Fractionation and Physicochemical Characterisation of Self-Assembled Chitosan-DNA Polyelectrolyte Complexes

Chitosan is extensively studied as a carrier for gene delivery and is an attractive non-viral gene vector owing to its polycationic, biodegradable, and biocompatible nature. Thus, it is essential to understand the chemistry of self-assembled chitosan-DNA complexation and their structural and functional properties, enabling the formation of an effective non-viral gene delivery system. In this study, two parent chitosans (samples NAS-032 and NAS-075; Mw range ~118-164 kDa) and their depolymerised derivatives (deploy nas-032 and deploy nas-075; Mw range 6-14 kDa) with degrees of acetylation 43.4 and 4.7%, respectively, were used to form polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) with DNA at varying [-NH3+]/[-PO4-] (N/P) molar charge ratios. We investigated the formation of the PECs using ζ-potential, asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) coupled with multiangle light scattering (MALS), refractive index (RI), ultraviolet (UV) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) detectors, and TEM imaging. PEC formation was confirmed by ζ-potential measurements that shifted from negative to positive values at N/P ratio ~2. The radius of gyration (Rg) was determined for the eluting fractions by AF4-MALS-RI-UV, while the corresponding hydrodynamic radius (Rh), by the DLS data. We studied the influence of different cross-flow rates on AF4 elution patterns for PECs obtained at N/P ratios 5, 10, and 20. The determined rho shape factor (ρ = Rg/Rh) values for the various PECs corresponded with a sphere morphology (ρ ~0.77-0.85), which was consistent with TEM images. The results of this study represent a further step towards the characterisation of chitosan-DNA PECs by the use of multi-detection AF4 as an important tool to fractionate and infer aspects of their morphology.

Applications of chitosan-based biomaterials: From preparation to spinal cord injury neuroprosthetic treatment

Spinal cord injury (SCI)-related disabilities are a serious problem in the modern society. Further, the treatment of SCI is highly challenging and is urgently required in clinical practice. Research on nerve tissue engineering is an emerging approach for improving the treatment outcomes of SCI. Chitosan (CS) is a cationic polysaccharide derived from natural biomaterials. Chitosan has been found to exhibit excellent biological properties, such as nontoxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradation, and antibacterial activity. Recently, chitosan-based biomaterials have attracted significant attention for SCI repair in nerve tissue engineering applications. These studies revealed that chitosan-based biomaterials have various functions and mechanisms to promote SCI repair, such as promoting neural cell growth, guiding nerve tissue regeneration, delivering nerve growth factors, and as a vector for gene therapy. Chitosan-based biomaterials have proven to have excellent potential for the treatment of SCI. This review aims to introduce the recent advances in chitosan-based biomaterials for SCI treatment and to highlight the prospects for further application.

High-Affinity DNA Nanomatrix: A Platform Technology for Synergistic Drug Delivery and Photothermal Therapy

With the advent of nucleosome/nucleotide intercalating drugs, DNA-based nanocarriers have recently gained impetus. However, most of the newly proposed DNA nanosystems are rather complex, thereby having low scalability and translatability. In this study, we propose a simple DNA nanomatrix core encapsulated within a chitosan shell, which is expected to enhance the encapsulation efficiency of intercalating drugs. This has been demonstrated using proflavine hemisulfate (PfHS), a model intercalating agent that shows improved ROS generation, among other anticancerous properties. The release of the drug from the nanomatrix is triggered by providing a heat trigger using IR-792 perchlorate, a known NIR photothermal sensitizer.

Novel Nanoencapsulation Technology and its Potential Role in Bile Acid-Based Targeted Gene Delivery to the Inner Ear

Hearing loss impacts a large proportion of the global population. Damage to the inner ear, in particular the sensitive hair cells, can impact individuals for the rest of their lives. There are very limited options for interventions after damage to these cells has occurred. Targeted gene delivery may provide an effective means to trigger appropriate differentiation of progenitor cells for effective replacement of these sensitive hair cells. There are several hurdles that need to be overcome to effectively deliver these genes. Nanoencapsulation technology has previously been used for the delivery of pharmaceuticals, proteins and nucleic acids, and may provide an effective means of delivering genes to trigger appropriate differentiation. This review investigates the background of hearing loss, current advancements and pitfalls of gene delivery, and how nanoencapsulation may be useful.

Nanocapsules: An Emerging Drug Delivery System

BACKGROUND

Controlled drug release and site-specific delivery of drugs make nanocapsules the most approbative drug delivery system for various kinds of drugs, bioactive, protein, and peptide compounds. Nanocapsules (NCs) are spherical shape microscopic shells consisting of a core (solid or liquid) in which the drug is positioned in a cavity enclosed by a distinctive polymeric membrane.

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the present patent study is to elaborate on various formulation techniques and methods of nanocapsules (NCs). The review also spotlights various biomedical applications as well as on the patents of NCs to date.

METHODS

The review was extracted from the searches performed using various search engines such as PubMed, Google Patents, Medline, Google Scholars, etc. In order to emphasize the importance of NCs, some published patents of NCs have also been reported in the review.

RESULTS

NCs are tiny magical shells having incredible reproducibility. Various techniques can be used to formulate NCs. The pharmaceutical performance of the formulated NCs can be judged by evaluating their shape, size, entrapment efficiency, loading capacity, etc., using different analytical techniques. Their main applications are found in the field of agrochemicals, genetic manipulation, cosmetics, hygiene items, strategic distribution of drugs to tumors, nanocapsule bandages to combat infection, and radiotherapy.

CONCLUSION

In the present review, our team made a deliberate effort to summarize the recent advances in the field of NCs and focus on new patents related to the implementation of NCs delivery systems in the area of some life-threatening disorders like diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases.

Oral immunocontraceptive vaccines: A novel approach for fertility control in wildlife

The overabundant populations of wildlife have caused many negative impacts, such as human-wildlife conflicts and ecological degradation. The existing approaches like injectable immunocontraceptive vaccines and lethal methods have limitations in many aspects, which has prompted the advancement of oral immunocontraceptive vaccine. There is growing interest in oral immunocontraceptive vaccines for reasons including high immunization coverage, easier administration, frequent boosting, the ability to induce systemic and mucosal immune responses, and cost-effectiveness. Delivery systems have been developed to protect oral antigens and enhance the immunogenicity, including live vectors, microparticles and nanoparticles, bacterial ghosts, and mucosal adjuvants. However, currently, no effective oral immunocontraceptive vaccine is available for field trials because of the enormous development challenges, including biological and physicochemical barriers of the gastrointestinal tract, mucosal tolerance, pre-existing immunity, antigen residence time in the small intestine, species specificity and other safety issues. To overcome these challenges, this article summarizes achievements in delivery systems and contraceptive antigens in oral immunocontraceptive vaccines and explores the potential barriers for future vaccine design and application.

Transformation of Bacillus thuringiensis plasmid DNA by a new polyethylenimine polymeric nanoparticles method

Although electroporation technique has been mostly used to transform Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), this method is not readily applicable to strains other than the one for which it was optimized. Polyethylenimine (PEI) is a golden standard non-viral vector that interacts with plasmids to form compact polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) via electrostatic interactions. This PNPs system is very attractive because they are easily prepared, able to carry large nucleic acid constructs, and show low toxicity. In this study, PEI/pBTdsSBV-VP1 PNPs were successfully prepared at various N/P ratios which is positively-chargeable polymer amine (N = nitrogen) groups to negatively-charged nucleic acid phosphate (P) groups, and the internalization of the complexes into Bt 4Q7 was confirmed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The PEI-mediated transformation showed similar efficiency comparable to that of electroporation method, suggesting that the method of PNPs will be an effective alternative for transformation of Bt strains.

Morin-VitaminE-β-CyclodextrinInclusionComplexLoadedChitosanNanoparticles (M-Vit.E-CD-CSNPs) Ameliorate Arsenic-Induced Hepatotoxicityina Murine Model

The special features of cyclodextrins (CDs), hydrophilic outer surfaces and hydrophobic inner surfaces, allow for development of inclusion complexes. The two bioactive strong antioxidant hepatoprotective compounds, Morin and vitamin E, are water insoluble. The present study aimed to prepare Morin-vitamin E-β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex loaded chitosan nanoparticles (M-Vit.E-CD-CS NPs) and to examine their hepatoprotective efficacy against arsenic-induced toxicity in a murine model. The NPs were characterized by FTIR, DLS, NMR, DSC, XRD, AFM, and a TEM study. The NPs were spherical in shape, 178 ± 1.5 nm in size with a polydispersity index (PDI) value of 0.18 and a zeta potential value of −22.4 ± 0.31 mV, with >50% encapsulation and drug loading efficacy. Mice were exposed to arsenic via drinking water, followed by treatment without or with the NPs on every alternate day up to 30 days by oral gavaging. Administration of NPs inhibited the arsenic-induced elevation of liver function markers, inflammatory and proapoptotic factors, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, alteration in the level of blood parameters and antioxidant factors, and liver damage, which was measured by different biochemical assays, ELISA, Western blot, and histological study. Organ distribution of nanoparticles was measured by HPLC. M-Vit.E-CD-CS NPs showing potent hepatoprotective activity may be therapeutically beneficial.

Chitosan Nanoparticle Encapsulation of Antibacterial Essential Oils

Chitosan is the most suitable encapsulation polymer because of its natural abundance, biodegradability, and surface functional groups in the form of free NH₂ groups. The presence of NH₂ groups allows for the facile grafting of functionalized molecules onto the chitosan surface, resulting in multifunctional materialistic applications. Quaternization of chitosan's free amino is one of the typical chemical modifications commonly achieved under acidic conditions. This quaternization improves its ionic character, making it ready for ionic-ionic surface modification. Although the cationic nature of chitosan alone exhibits antibacterial activity because of its interaction with negatively-charged bacterial membranes, the nanoscale size of chitosan further amplifies its antibiofilm activity. Additionally, the researcher used chitosan nanoparticles as polymeric materials to encapsulate antibiofilm agents (such as antibiotics and natural phytochemicals), serving as an excellent strategy to combat biofilm-based secondary infections. This paper provided a summary of available carbohydrate-based biopolymers as antibiofilm materials. Furthermore, the paper focuses on chitosan nanoparticle-based encapsulation of basil essential oil (Ocimum basilicum), mandarin essential oil (Citrus reticulata), Carum copticum essential oil ("Ajwain"), dill plant seed essential oil (Anethum graveolens), peppermint oil (Mentha piperita), green tea oil (Camellia sinensis), cardamom essential oil, clove essential oil (Eugenia caryophyllata), cumin seed essential oil (Cuminum cyminum), lemongrass essential oil (Cymbopogon commutatus), summer savory essential oil (Satureja hortensis), thyme essential oil, cinnamomum essential oil (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), and nettle essential oil (Urtica dioica). Additionally, chitosan nanoparticles are used for the encapsulation of the major essential components carvacrol and cinnamaldehyde, the encapsulation of an oil-in-water nanoemulsion of eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus globulus), the encapsulation of a mandarin essential oil nanoemulsion, and the electrospinning nanofiber of collagen hydrolysate-chitosan with lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and dill (Anethum graveolens) essential oil.

Coacervates: recent developments as nanostructure delivery platforms for therapeutic biomolecules

Coacervation is a liquid-liquid phase separation that can occur in solutions of macromolecules through self-assembly or electrostatic interactions. Recently, coacervates composed of biocompatible macromolecules have been actively investigated as nanostructure platforms to encapsulate and deliver biomolecules such as proteins, RNAs, and DNAs. One particular advantage of coacervates is that they are derived from aqueous solutions, unlike other nanoparticle delivery systems that often require organic solvents. In addition, coacervates achieve high loading while maintaining the viability of the cargo material. Here, we review recent developments in the applications of coacervates and their limitations in the delivery of therapeutic biomolecules. Important factors for coacervation include molecular structures of the polyelectrolytes, mixing ratio, the concentration of polyelectrolytes, and reaction conditions such as ionic strength, pH, and temperature. Various compositions of coacervates have been shown to deliver biomolecules in vitro and in vivo with encouraging activities. However, major hurdles remain for the systemic route of administration other than topical or local delivery. The scale-up of manufacturing methods suitable for preclinical and clinical evaluations remains to be addressed. We conclude with a few research directions to overcome current challenges, which may lead to successful translation into the clinic.

Metal organic frameworks (MOFS) as non-viral carriers for DNA and RNA delivery: a review

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are a class of crystalline materials that, thanks to their large surface area and high porosity, allow them to be used in various areas of knowledge. This diversity of applications is due to the metal ions and the organic binders that compose them, but it is also important to highlight the ability of MOFs to function as hosts for a great variety of molecules of very different sizes and chemical properties. The first existing approaches for incorporating biomolecules in MOFs are discussed: pore encapsulation, surface binding, covalent binding, and in-situ encapsulation. Next, we discuss the obstacles of designing MOFs for effective gene delivery and how to enhance the gene delivery using different strategies.

Preparation and characterization of magnetic nanohydrogel based on chitosan for 5-fluorouracil drug delivery and kinetic study

Chemotherapy is currently used for most cancer treatments, but one of the significant problems of this treatment is that it affects the healthy tissues of the body. Therefore, designing new systems for the intelligent and controlled release of these drugs in cancer tissues is one of the major challenges in the world. Hence, today, huge costs are spent designing appropriate new drug delivery systems (DDS) with controlled drug release. In this study, chitosan-polyacrylic acid encapsulated Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanogelic core-shell (Fe₃O₄@CS-PAA) was synthesized in the presence of glutaraldehyde used for loaded anticancer 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) drug. Also, the prepared Fe₃O₄@CS-PAA was characterized by using FT-IR, SEM, XRD, and VSM analysis. Then, drug delivery tests were carried out in the in-vitro conditions that are the simulated physiological environment and tumor tissue conditions. The drug release tests indicated that the Fe₃O₄@CS-PAA upgraded the rate of 5-FU release from nanogelic core-shell under tumor tissue conditions (pH 4.5) than physiological environments (pH 7.4). In addition, various models were used to investigate the drug release mechanism. Results of modeling studies of drug release showed the mechanism of 5-FU release from Fe₃O₄@CS-PAA controlled by Fickian diffusion.

Chitosan based nanoformulation expressing miR-155 as a promising adjuvant to enhance Th1-biased immune responses

BACKGROUND AND AIM

MiR-155 could act as a key modulator of different aspects of immune system including Th1 responses. In this study, we designed chitosan nanoparticles containing miR-155-expressing plasmid and explored their effects as an adjuvant to enhance Th1 responses for potential future application against intracellular pathogens.

METHODS

Nanoparticles were formulated by complex coacervation method and characterized for physicochemical and functional characteristics. Transfection efficiency in Raw 264.7 cells, effects on miR-155 target genes and NO production were evaluated. The prepared nanoparticles were co-administered as an adjuvant with ovalbumin to immunize mice and finally production of IFN-γ and IL-4 were measured by ELISA in splenocyte recall responses.

RESULTS

The prepared nanoparticles had the mean size of 244 nm and zeta potential of +17 mV, respectively. Electrophoresis analysis indicated the high capability of nanoparticles to protect the plasmid from DNaseI degradation. Furthermore, nanoparticles showed an appropriate transfection efficiency in Raw 264.7 cells and could downregulate the expression of miR-155 target genes and also upregulate NO production. In vivo immunization examinations revealed successful shift of T cell responses toward Th1.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggests the high potential of chitosan nanoparticles containing miR-155-expressing plasmid as an adjuvant for significantly enhanced Th1-biased immune responses upon immunization with a given antigen.

Inactivation of Polymicrobial Biofilms of Foodborne Pathogens Using Epsilon Poly-L-Lysin Conjugated Chitosan Nanoparticles

A mixed culture (polymicrobial) biofilm provides a favorable environment for pathogens to persist in the food processing environment and to contaminate food products. Inactivation and eradication of such biofilms from food processing environments are achieved by using harsh disinfectants, but their toxicity and environmentally hostile characteristics are unsustainable. This study aims to use food-grade natural nanoparticulated antimicrobials to control mixed-culture biofilms. Chitosan, a natural broad-spectrum antimicrobial biopolymer (polysaccharide) from crustaceans, was derivatized to produce chitosan nanoparticles (ChNP) as a carrier for another broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent, ε-poly-L-lysine (PL), to synthesize ChNP-PL conjugate. The antimicrobial activity of ChNP and ChNP-PL was tested against mixed-culture biofilms. ChNP-PL (~100 nm) exhibited a synergistic antimicrobial and anti-biofilm effect against mono or mixed-culture biofilms of five foodborne pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. ChNP-PL treatment prevented biofilm formation by mono or mixed cultures of L. monocytogenes, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli O157:H7, and bacterial counts were either below the detection limit or caused 3.5–5 log reduction. ChNP-PL also inactivated preformed biofilms. In monoculture biofilm, ChNP-PL treatment reduced L. monocytogenes counts by 4.5 logs, S. Enteritidis by 2 logs, E. coli by 2 logs, and S. aureus by 0.5 logs, while ChNP-PL had no inhibitory effect on P. aeruginosa. In vitro mammalian cell-based cytotoxicity analysis confirmed ChNP-PL to have no deleterious effect on intestinal HCT-8 cell line. In conclusion, our results show ChNP-PL has strong potential to prevent the formation or inactivation of preformed polymicrobial biofilms of foodborne pathogens.

General Characteristics, Biomedical and Dental Application, and Usage of Chitosan in the Treatment of Temporomandibular Joint Disorders: A Narrative Review

The aim of this narrative review was to present research investigating chitosan, including its general characteristics, properties, and medical and dental applications, and finally to present the current state of knowledge regarding the efficacy of chitosan in the treatment of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) based on the literature. The PICO approach was used for the literature search strategy. The PubMed database was analyzed with the following keywords: (“chitosan”[MeSH Terms] OR “chitosan”[All Fields] OR “chitosans”[All Fields] OR “chitosan s”[All Fields] OR “chitosane”[All Fields]) AND (“temporomandibular joint”[MeSH Terms] OR (“tem-poromandibular”[All Fields] AND “joint”[All Fields]) OR “temporomandibular joint”[All Fields] OR (“temporomandibular”[All Fields] AND “joints”[All Fields]) OR “temporo-mandibular joints”[All Fields]). After screening 8 results, 5 studies were included in this review. Chitosan presents many biological properties and therefore it can be widely used in several branches of medicine and dentistry. Chitosan promotes wound healing, helps to control bleeding, and is used in wound dressings, such as sutures and artificial skin. Apart from its antibacterial property, chitosan has many other properties, such as antifungal, mucoadhesive, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, and antitumoral properties. Further clinical studies assessing the efficacy of chitosan in the treatment of TMD are required. According to only one clinical study, chitosan was effective in the treatment of TMD; however, better clinical results were obtained with platelet-rich plasma.

One-pot green synthesis of antimicrobial chitosan derivative nanocomposites to control foodborne pathogens

Food contamination by foodborne pathogens is considered a serious problem worldwide. This study aimed to show the efficacy of the one-pot green biosynthesis of nanocomposites as effective antimicrobial agents based on a water-soluble biodegradable polysaccharide and silver nitrate (AgNO₃). Silver (Ag) nanoparticles were synthesized using different concentrations of AgNO₃ solution (1, 2, and 3 mM) in the presence of N-quaternized chitosan and N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) as both a reducing and stabilizing agent. In addition, the structure of TMC/Ag nanocomposites was confirmed using different analytical tools including FTIR, UV-Vis, XRD, HR-TEM, FE-SEM, and EDX techniques. The FTIR spectra and UV-Vis spectra showed the main characteristic absorption peaks of Ag nanoparticles. In addition, FE-SEM images showed the formation of spherical bead-like particles on the surface of TMC. Correspondingly, the EDX spectrum showed a peak for silver, indicating the successful synthesis of Ag nanoparticles inside the TMC chains. Moreover, HR-TEM images exhibited the good distribution of Ag nanoparticles, which appeared as nano-spherical shapes. The antimicrobial activity of TMC/Ag nanocomposites was examined against three foodborne pathogens, including Salmonella Typhimurium as a Gram-negative bacterium, Bacillus subtilis as a Gram-positive bacterium and Aspergillus fumigatus as a fungus. The results showed that TMC/Ag nanocomposites had better antimicrobial activity compared with TMC alone and their antimicrobial activity increased with an increase in the concentration of Ag. The results confirmed that the TMC/Ag nanocomposites can be potentially used as an effective antimicrobial agent in food preservation.

This study aimed to show the efficacy of the one-pot green biosynthesis of nanocomposites as effective antimicrobial agents based on a water-soluble biodegradable polysaccharide and silver nitrate (AgNO₃).

Novel Perspectives towards RNA-Based Nano-Theranostic Approaches for Cancer Management

In the fight against cancer, early diagnosis is critical for effective treatment. Traditional cancer diagnostic technologies, on the other hand, have limitations that make early detection difficult. Therefore, multi-functionalized nanoparticles (NPs) and nano-biosensors have revolutionized the era of cancer diagnosis and treatment for targeted action via attaching specified and biocompatible ligands to target the tissues, which are highly over-expressed in certain types of cancers. Advancements in multi-functionalized NPs can be achieved via modifying molecular genetics to develop personalized and targeted treatments based on RNA interference. Modification in RNA therapies utilized small RNA subunits in the form of small interfering RNAs (siRNA) for overexpressing the specific genes of, most commonly, breast, colon, gastric, cervical, and hepatocellular cancer. RNA-conjugated nanomaterials appear to be the gold standard for preventing various malignant tumors through focused diagnosis and delivering to a specific tissue, resulting in cancer cells going into programmed death. The latest advances in RNA nanotechnology applications for cancer diagnosis and treatment are summarized in this review.

Biomacromolecules of chitosan - Bacopa saponin based LipL32 gene delivery system for leptospirosis therapy

Leptospirosis is a severe bacterial infectious disease caused by the organisms belonging to the genus of Leptospira. The chitosan/Bacopa saponin/tripolyphosphate (CS/BS/TPP) nanoparticles conjugated with recombinant DNA vaccines were designed against Leptospirosis. Chitosan, a polysaccharide is suitable for delivery of drug, and gene due to its bio-compatible and biodegradable properties. Bacopa saponins are used for the induction of the immune response against microbial infections. The recombinant DNA vaccine construct was composed of the leptospiral outer membrane LipL32 gene tagged with EGFP and hGMCSF adjuvant in the pVAX1 mammalian expression vector along with the Cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter. These recombinant DNA vaccine constructs was termed as pVAX1-EGFP-LipL32 and pVAX1-EGFP-hGMCSF-LipL32, and these constructs were conjugated with CS/BS/TPP nanoparticles by using the ionic gelation technique. Thus, CS/BS/TPP conjugated nanoparticle DNA vaccine was confirmed by functionality (FT-IR), crystalline nature (XRD) and surface charge (Zeta potential). The 90% encapsulation efficiency was observed in the conjugated nanoparticle DNA vaccine. In contrast, cell viability analysis validated that the synthesized DNA conjugated CS/BS/TPP nanoparticles showed low cytotoxicity up to 10 mg/mL. The results showed here are the initial establishment of DNA vaccine conjugated nanoparticles, which can be used as a potential anti-leptospiral vaccine.

A Review of Brain-Targeted Nonviral Gene-Based Therapies for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) are difficult to treat owing to the complexity of the brain and the presence of a natural blood-brain-barrier (BBB). Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the major progressive and currently incurable neurodegenerative disorders of the CNS, which accounts for 60-80% of cases of dementia. The pathophysiology of AD involves the accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain. Additionally, synaptic loss and imbalance of neuronal signaling molecules are characterized as important markers of AD. Existing treatments of AD help in the management of its symptoms and aim toward the maintenance of cognitive functions, behavior, and attenuation of gradual memory loss. Over the past decade, nonviral gene therapy has attracted increasing interest due to its various advantages over its viral counterparts. Moreover, advancements in nonviral gene technology have led to their increasing contributions in clinical trials. However, brain-targeted nonviral gene delivery vectors come across various extracellular and intracellular barriers, limiting their ability to transfer the therapeutic gene into the target cells. Chief barriers to nonviral gene therapy have been discussed briefly in this review. We have also highlighted the rapid advancement of several nonviral gene therapies for AD, which are broadly categorized into physical and chemical methods. These methods aim to modulate Aβ, beta-site amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), apolipoprotein E, or neurotrophic factors' expression in the CNS. Overall, this review discusses challenges and recent advancements of nonviral gene therapy for AD.

Construction and antitumor properties of a targeted nano-drug carrier system responsive to the tumor microenvironment

Doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the most commonly used and effective chemotherapy drugs among anthracyclines. An inherent limitation of DOX is its nonspecificity, which can cause serious side effects, thereby preventing the therapeutic use of high drug doses. In this study, we designed and created a simple nano-drug delivery system (PEG-MAF = P) with low biological toxicity that was responsive to the tumor environment. PEG-MAF = P was designed to self-assemble into nanospheres via control of a phenylalanine dipeptide (FF). The N-terminus of the peptide was linked to aldehyde groups at both ends of oxidized Pluronic F127 (F127-CHO) via Schiff bonds. The acidic environment surrounding the tumors was suitable for triggering the Schiff bonds, causing the nanospheres to disintegrate. The C-terminus of FF was connected to a ligand peptide, ATN-161, which was able to recognize cells expressing high levels of integrin α5β1 antigens both in vivo and in vitro. To prevent the impediment in drug release, PEG was linked via a matrix metalloproteinase-9 response peptide. Therefore, in an acidic tumor microenvironment containing MMP-9, PEG-MAF = P disintegrated and rapidly released the drug. PEG-MAF = P exhibited low cytotoxicity, high drug-loading rate, and excellent antitumor properties both in vivo and in vitro. Compared with free DOX, PEG-MAF = P-DOX reduced injury to normal tissues.

Potential of chitosan/alginate nanoparticles as a non-viral vector for gene delivery: Formulation and optimization using D-optimal design

Chitosan/alginate (Chi/Alg) nanoparticles as a non-viral vector for the Smad4 encoding plasmid were optimized utilizing D-optimal design based on the nanoparticles/plasmid ratio, Chi/Alg MW, and preparation method type. Following the optimization and validation of the best formula, morphology studies and FTIR measurements were performed to evaluate the optimized Chi/Alg/S NPs. Toxicity (MTT assay) and transfection studies were performed for the best formula in comparison with Lipofectamine 2000, and Polyethyleneimine (PEI) and evaluated using Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) assay, Flow cytometry, and RT-PCR. The model predicted a particle size of 111 nm, loading efficacy (LE) of 43%, cumulative release (CMR) of 39%, the ζ-potential of +50 mV, and PDI of 0.13. The predicted point condition was as follows: NP ratio = 13, Chi/Alg MW ratio = 2.35, and preparation method type = 1. Microscopic findings revealed that the shape of nanoparticles was spherical. The Chi/Alg/S nanoparticles showed no toxicity and transfection efficacy of 29.9% was observed in comparison with Lipofectamine (35.5%) and PEI (30.9%).

Role of different types of nanomaterials against diagnosis, prevention and therapy of COVID-19

In 2019, a novel type of coronavirus emerged in China called SARS-COV-2, known COVID-19, threatens global health and possesses negative impact on people's quality of life, leading to an urgent need for its diagnosis and remedy. On the other hand, the presence of hazardous infectious waste led to the increase of the risk of transmitting the virus by individuals and by hospitals during the COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, in this review, we survey previous researches on nanomaterials that can be effective for guiding strategies to deal with the current COVID-19 pandemic and also decrease the hazardous infectious waste in the environment. We highlight the contribution of nanomaterials that possess potential to therapy, prevention, detect targeted virus proteins and also can be useful for large population screening, for the development of environmental sensors and filters. Besides, we investigate the possibilities of employing the nanomaterials in antiviral research and treatment development, examining the role of nanomaterials in antiviral- drug design, including the importance of nanomaterials in drug delivery and vaccination, and for the production of medical equipment. Nanomaterials-based technologies not only contribute to the ongoing SARS- CoV-2 research efforts but can also provide platforms and tools for the understanding, protection, detection and treatment of future viral diseases.

Chitosan-based nanoparticles for controlled release of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs

Nanoparticles encapsulating different kinds of therapeutic drugs are promising drug delivery systems for controlling release and targeting tumor cells. Chitosan nanoparticles made by polyelectrolyte complexation were designed as drug carriers using doxorubicin (DOX)/5-fluorouracil (5-FU) as hydrophobic/hydrophilic model drugs. The sizes of nanoparticles were 235 ± 13 and 177 ± 7 nm with narrow distributions. The effects of the initial drug amount and pH of the medium on drug-controlled release properties were evaluated, the model-fitting results and release mechanisms were analyzed as well. For 5-FU-loaded chitosan nanoparticles, the controlled-release effect was superior to that of DOX, indicating that the polyelectrolyte complex nanoparticles were more suitable for hydrophilic drugs, particularly for negatively charged or electrically neutral drugs. Moreover, the release behaviors conformed with the first-order kinetic model, indicating that the nanoparticles were mainly released by diffusion during the drug release process; the system could also be fitted using the Higuchi model, showing that the entire drug release process was dominated by diffusion and supplemented by gradual dissolution. In all, the results suggested that chitosan nanoparticles made by polyelectrolyte complexation can be launched as a smart drug delivery system for cancer treatments.