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Silveira RF, Lima AL, Gross IP, Gelfuso GM, Gratieri T, Cunha-Filho M. The role of artificial intelligence and data science in nanoparticles development: a review. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2024:1-13. [PMID: 38905147 DOI: 10.1080/17435889.2024.2359355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Artificial intelligence has revolutionized many sectors with unparalleled predictive capabilities supported by machine learning (ML). So far, this tool has not been able to provide the same level of development in pharmaceutical nanotechnology. This review discusses the current data science methodologies related to polymeric drug-loaded nanoparticle production from an innovative multidisciplinary perspective while considering the strictest data science practices. Several methodological and data interpretation flaws were identified by analyzing the few qualified ML studies. Most issues lie in following appropriate analysis steps, such as cross-validation, balancing data, or testing alternative models. Thus, better-planned studies following the recommended data science analysis steps along with adequate numbers of experiments would change the current landscape, allowing the exploration of the full potential of ML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Fonseca Silveira
- Laboratory of Food, Drugs, & Cosmetics (LTMAC), University of Brasilia, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Ana Luiza Lima
- Laboratory of Food, Drugs, & Cosmetics (LTMAC), University of Brasilia, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Idejan Padilha Gross
- Laboratory of Food, Drugs, & Cosmetics (LTMAC), University of Brasilia, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Martins Gelfuso
- Laboratory of Food, Drugs, & Cosmetics (LTMAC), University of Brasilia, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Tais Gratieri
- Laboratory of Food, Drugs, & Cosmetics (LTMAC), University of Brasilia, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Marcilio Cunha-Filho
- Laboratory of Food, Drugs, & Cosmetics (LTMAC), University of Brasilia, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
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Braga Carneiro S, Kreutz T, Limberger RP, da Veiga Júnior VF, Koester LS. Development, validation and application of a gas chromatography method for the determination of dillapiole from Piper aduncum essential oil in skin permeation samples. Biomed Chromatogr 2023; 37:e5544. [PMID: 36342416 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The essential oil extracted from the leaves of Piper aduncum has antifungal, insecticidal and antibacterial activity. Studies with its main compound, dillapiole (DIL) revealed antibacterial and anti-inflammatory potential. Despite all this bioactivity, there is no updated report on the development and validation of analytical and bioanalytical methodology to quantify DIL in skin samples. A selective, precise, accurate and adequate method for the determination of DIL in solutions, porcine ear skin samples and receptor fluid was developed and validated by headspace extraction-gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (HS-GC-FID). HS-GC-FID was applied to determine DIL in Franz cell permeation and retention studies using porcine ear skin samples. In the HS-GC-FID method, matrix-related interferences were not observed at the peak of the DIL retention time. The results showed a high recovery (>97%) after the extraction procedure, allowing the quantification of DIL in complex matrices. In vitro permeation/retention for DIL showed cumulative amounts permeated in the order: receptor fluid (21.98 ± 1.19 μg/cm2 ) > epidermis (15.40 ± 1.20 μg/cm2 ) > dermis (9.52 ± 1.13 μg/cm2 ). HS-GC-FID was successfully validated and the results point to DIL transdermal permeation and to the potential to develop pharmaceutical formulations for skin delivery to treat inflammation or infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Braga Carneiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Inovação Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Tainá Kreutz
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Renata Pereira Limberger
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Letícia Scherer Koester
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Kuzma BA, Senemar S, Ramezanli T, Ghosh P, Raney SG, Stagni G. The dose-duration effect on cutaneous pharmacokinetics of metronidazole from topical dermatological formulations in Yucatan mini-pigs. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2022; 175:43-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2022.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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State-of-the-Art Review of Artificial Neural Networks to Predict, Characterize and Optimize Pharmaceutical Formulation. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14010183. [PMID: 35057076 PMCID: PMC8779224 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14010183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
During the development of a pharmaceutical formulation, a powerful tool is needed to extract the key points from the complicated process parameters and material attributes. Artificial neural networks (ANNs), a promising and more flexible modeling technique, can address real intricate questions in a high parallelism and distributed pattern in the manner of biological neural networks. The data mined and analyzing based on ANNs have the ability to replace hundreds of trial and error experiments. ANNs have been used for data analysis by pharmaceutics researchers since the 1990s and it has now become a research method in pharmaceutical science. This review focuses on the latest application progress of ANNs in the prediction, characterization and optimization of pharmaceutical formulation to provide a reference for the further interdisciplinary study of pharmaceutics and ANNs.
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Dou F, Lu Y, Nitin N. Yeast cell microcarriers for delivery of a model bioactive compound in skin. Int J Pharm 2021; 609:121123. [PMID: 34560206 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.121123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed at developing a cell-based encapsulation carrier for topical delivery of bioactives to the skin. The overall objectives were to evaluate affinity of the yeast-cell based carrier to bind to the skin surface following topical application and to quantify controlled release of curcumin as a model bioactive in ex-vivo skin models using a combination of imaging, modeling and analytical measurements. Both porcine skin tissue and clinically obtained human skin biopsies were studied. The results demonstrated that upon incubation with the ex-vivo skin tissues, the cell carriers rapidly bound to the skin surface following topical delivery and provided sustained release of encapsulated curcumin. The microcarrier binding and penetration of curcumin in the dermal compartment also showed to increase with incubation time. The average flux of curcumin in human skin biopsies Jp was 0.89 ± 0.02 μg/cm2/h. These results illustrated the potential of a novel cell-based carrier for high affinity binding to skin surface, efficient encapsulation of a model bioactive and controlled release from the cell carrier to the skin with enhanced permeation to the dermis section. Overall, this study demonstrated a new class of cost-effective carriers for improving delivery of bioactives to the skin and potentially other epithelial tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Dou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Yixing Lu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Nitin Nitin
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Bittremieux W, Advani RS, Jarmusch AK, Aguirre S, Lu A, Dorrestein PC, Tsunoda SM. Physicochemical properties determining drug detection in skin. Clin Transl Sci 2021; 15:761-770. [PMID: 34793633 PMCID: PMC8932847 DOI: 10.1111/cts.13198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemicals, including some systemically administered xenobiotics and their biotransformations, can be detected noninvasively using skin swabs and untargeted metabolomics analysis. We sought to understand the principal drivers that determine whether a drug taken orally or systemically is likely to be observed on the epidermis by using a random forest classifier to predict which drugs would be detected on the skin. A variety of molecular descriptors describing calculated properties of drugs, such as measures of volume, electronegativity, bond energy, and electrotopology, were used to train the classifier. The mean area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.71 for predicting drug detection on the epidermis, and the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) model interpretation technique was used to determine the most relevant molecular descriptors. Based on the analysis of 2561 US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)‐approved drugs, we predict that therapeutic drug classes, such as nervous system drugs, are more likely to be detected on the skin. Detecting drugs and other chemicals noninvasively on the skin using untargeted metabolomics could be a useful clinical advancement in therapeutic drug monitoring, adherence, and health status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wout Bittremieux
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Department of Computer Science, University of Antwerp, Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - Rohit S Advani
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Alan K Jarmusch
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Immunity, Inflammation, and Disease Laboratory, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Shaden Aguirre
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Aileen Lu
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.,Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Shirley M Tsunoda
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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Janicka M, Mycka A, Sztanke M, Sztanke K. Predicting Pharmacokinetic Properties of Potential Anticancer Agents via Their Chromatographic Behavior on Different Reversed Phase Materials. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22084257. [PMID: 33923942 PMCID: PMC8072580 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) methodology was used to predict biological properties, i.e., the blood–brain distribution (log BB), fraction unbounded in the brain (fu,brain), water-skin permeation (log Kp), binding to human plasma proteins (log Ka,HSA), and intestinal permeability (Caco-2), for three classes of fused azaisocytosine-containing congeners that were considered and tested as promising drug candidates. The compounds were characterized by lipophilic, structural, and electronic descriptors, i.e., chromatographic retention, topological polar surface area, polarizability, and molecular weight. Different reversed-phase liquid chromatography techniques were used to determine the chromatographic lipophilicity of the compounds that were tested, i.e., micellar liquid chromatography (MLC) with the ODS-2 column and polyoxyethylene lauryl ether (Brij 35) as the effluent component, an immobilized artificial membrane (IAM) chromatography with phosphatidylcholine column (IAM.PC.DD2) and chromatography with end-capped octadecylsilyl (ODS) column using aqueous solutions of acetonitrile as the mobile phases. Using multiple linear regression, we derived the statistically significant quantitative structure-activity relationships. All these QSAR equations were validated and were found to be very good. The investigations highlight the significance and possibilities of liquid chromatographic techniques with three different reversed-phase materials and QSARs methods in predicting the pharmacokinetic properties of our important organic compounds and reducing unethical animal testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Małgorzata Janicka
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Science, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Maria Curie-Skłodowska Sq. 3, 20-031 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Anna Mycka
- Doctoral School of Quantitative and Natural Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Maria Curie-Skłodowska Sq. 3, 20-031 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Małgorzata Sztanke
- Chair and Department of Medical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (K.S.); Tel.: +48-814486195 (M.S. & K.S.)
| | - Krzysztof Sztanke
- Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis and Analysis, Chair and Department of Medical Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (K.S.); Tel.: +48-814486195 (M.S. & K.S.)
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8
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Maharao N, Antontsev V, Hou H, Walsh J, Varshney J. Scalable in silico Simulation of Transdermal Drug Permeability: Application of BIOiSIM Platform. Drug Des Devel Ther 2020; 14:2307-2317. [PMID: 32606600 PMCID: PMC7296558 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s253064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Transdermal drug delivery is gaining popularity as an alternative to traditional routes of administration. It can increase patient compliance because of its painless and noninvasive nature, aid compounds in bypassing presystemic metabolic effects, and reduce the likelihood of adverse effects through decreased systemic exposure. In silico physiological modeling is critical to predicting dermal exposure for a therapeutic and assessing the impact of different formulations on transdermal disposition. METHODS The present study aimed at developing a physiologically based transdermal platform, "BIOiSIM", that could be globally applied to a wide variety of compounds to predict their transdermal disposition. The platform integrates a 16-compartment model of compound pharmacokinetics and was used to simulate and predict drug exposure of three chemically and biologically distinct drug-like compounds. Machine learning optimization was composed of two components: exhaustive search algorithm (coarse-tuning) and descent (fine-tuning) integrated with the platform used to quantitatively determine parameters influencing pharmacokinetics (eg permeability, kperm) of test compounds. RESULTS The model successfully predicted drug exposure (AUC, Cmax and Tmax) following transdermal application of morphine, buprenorphine and nicotine in human subjects, mostly with less than two-fold absolute average fold error (AAFE). The model was further able to successfully characterize the relationship between observed systemic exposure and intended pharmacological effect. The predicted systemic concentration of morphine and plasma levels of endogenous pain biomarkers were used to estimate the effectiveness of a given therapeutic regimen. CONCLUSION BIOiSIM marks a novel approach to in silico prediction that will enable leveraging of machine learning technology in the pharmaceutical space. The approach to model development outlined results in scalable, accurate models and enables the generation of large parameter/coefficient datasets from in vivo clinical data that can be used in future work to train quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) models for predicting likelihood of compound utility as a transdermally administered therapeutic.
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Liu X, Xu L, Liu X, Wang Y, Zhao Y, Kang Q, Liu J, Lan H, Yu L, Wu Q. Combination of essential oil from Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. and a microemulsion system: Permeation enhancement effect on drugs with different lipophilicity and its mechanism. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2019.101309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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10
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Hashida M. Role of pharmacokinetic consideration for the development of drug delivery systems: A historical overview. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2020; 157:71-82. [PMID: 32565225 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Drug delivery system is defined as a system or technology to achieve optimum therapeutic effects of drugs through precise control of their movements in the body. In order to optimize function of drug delivery systems aiming at targeting, their whole-body distribution profiles should be systematically evaluated and analyzed, where pharmacokinetic analysis based on the clearance concepts plays important role. Organ perfusion experiments combined with statistical moment analysis further supply detailed information on drug disposition at organ and cellular levels. Based on general relationship between physicochemical properties and distribution profile, macromolecular prodrugs or polymer conjugates of proteins are rationally designed and further introduction of ligand structure brings cell-specific delivery for them. These approaches are also applicable for particulate carriers such as liposomes and offer various opportunities for biological drugs such as nucleic acid drugs for their delivery. Mechanistic approach for dermal absorption analysis based on physiological skin model offers another opportunity in rational design of drug delivery. Potential of drug delivery technology in future medicines such as cell therapy and nanomaterial platform application is further discussed in relation to pharmacokinetic consideration.
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Hassanzadeh P, Atyabi F, Dinarvand R. The significance of artificial intelligence in drug delivery system design. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2019; 151-152:169-190. [PMID: 31071378 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade, increasing interest has been attracted towards the application of artificial intelligence (AI) technology for analyzing and interpreting the biological or genetic information, accelerated drug discovery, and identification of the selective small-molecule modulators or rare molecules and prediction of their behavior. Application of the automated workflows and databases for rapid analysis of the huge amounts of data and artificial neural networks (ANNs) for development of the novel hypotheses and treatment strategies, prediction of disease progression, and evaluation of the pharmacological profiles of drug candidates may significantly improve treatment outcomes. Target fishing (TF) by rapid prediction or identification of the biological targets might be of great help for linking targets to the novel compounds. AI and TF methods in association with human expertise may indeed revolutionize the current theranostic strategies, meanwhile, validation approaches are necessary to overcome the potential challenges and ensure higher accuracy. In this review, the significance of AI and TF in the development of drugs and delivery systems and the potential challenging issues have been highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parichehr Hassanzadeh
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 13169-43551, Iran.
| | - Fatemeh Atyabi
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 13169-43551, Iran.
| | - Rassoul Dinarvand
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 13169-43551, Iran.
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12
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Liu J, Ding W, Ruan R, Zou L, Chen M, Wei P, Wen L. A Theoretical Study on Inhibition of Melanoma with Controlled and Targeted Delivery of siRNA via Skin Using SPACE-EGF. Ann Biomed Eng 2017; 45:1407-1419. [PMID: 28349327 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-017-1825-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is a potentially lethal skin cancer with high mortality rate. Recently, the peptide-mediated transdermal delivery of small interference RNA (siRNA) emerges as a promising strategy to treat melanoma by inducing the apoptosis of tumor cells, but the related theoretical model describing the delivery of siRNA under the effect of SPACE-EGF, the growth inhibition of melanoma and the dynamic expanding of the bump on the skin due to the growth of melanoma has not been reported yet. In this article, a theoretical model is developed to describe the percutaneous siRNA delivery mediated by SPACE-EGF to melanoma and the growth inhibition of melanoma. The results present the spatial-temporal distribution of siRNA and the growth of melanoma under the inhibition of siRNA, which shows a good consistency with the experimental results. In addition, this model represents the uplift process of tumors on the skin surface. The model presented here is a useful tool to understand the whole process of the SPACE-EGF-mediated delivery of the siRNA to melanoma through skin, to predict the therapeutic effect, and to optimize the therapeutic strategy, providing valuable references for the treatment of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanjuan Liu
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
- Department of Electronic Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Weiping Ding
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China.
- Department of Electronic Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China.
| | - Renquan Ruan
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Lili Zou
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
- Department of Electronic Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Ming Chen
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
- Department of Pharmacology, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, 230038, Anhui, China
| | - Pengfei Wei
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
| | - Longping Wen
- School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, Anhui, China
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13
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Ruela ALM, Perissinato AG, Lino MEDS, Mudrik PS, Pereira GR. Evaluation of skin absorption of drugs from topical and transdermal formulations. BRAZ J PHARM SCI 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/s1984-82502016000300018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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14
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Zorzi GK, Caregnato F, Moreira JCF, Teixeira HF, Carvalho ELS. Antioxidant Effect of Nanoemulsions Containing Extract of Achyrocline satureioides (Lam) D.C.-Asteraceae. AAPS PharmSciTech 2016; 17:844-50. [PMID: 26361953 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-015-0408-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Ethanolic extracts of Achyrocline satureioides have pronounced antioxidant activity mainly due to the presence of the flavonoid quercetin. However, direct topical application of the extract is not possible due to the presence of high amounts of ethanol. In this sense, nanoemulsions arise as an alternative for topical formulation associating molecules with limited aqueous solubility. This article describes the development of topical nanoemulsions containing either A. satureioides extract or one of its most abundant flavonoid, quercetin. Nanoemulsions composed of octyldodecanol, egg lecithin, water and extract (NEE), or quercetin (NEQ) were prepared by spontaneous emulsification. This process led to monodisperse nanoemulsions presenting a mean droplet size of approximately 200-300 nm, negative zeta potential, and high association efficiency. A study of quercetin skin retention using porcine skin which was performed using a Franz diffusion cell revealed a higher accumulation of quercetin in skin for NEE when compared to NEQ. Finally, the antioxidant activity of formulations was measured by thiobarbituric acid-reactive species and the APPH model. A lower lipoperoxidation for the extract in respect to quercetin solution was observed. However, no difference between NEQ and NEE lipoperoxidation could be seen. The protection against lipoperoxidation by the formulations was also measured in the skin, where lower formation of reactive species was observed after treatment with NEE. In conclusion, this study shows the formulation effect on the physicochemical properties of nanoemulsions as well as on the skin retention and antioxidant activity of quercetin.
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Lan Y, Wang J, He S, Li S, Tan P, Lin H, Wu Q. Transdermal permeation of Zanthoxylum bungeanum essential oil on TCM components with different lipophilicity. JOURNAL OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICAL SCIENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcms.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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16
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Chen T, Lian G, Kattou P. In Silico Modelling of Transdermal and Systemic Kinetics of Topically Applied Solutes: Model Development and Initial Validation for Transdermal Nicotine. Pharm Res 2016; 33:1602-14. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-016-1900-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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17
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Yi QF, Yan J, Tang SY, Huang H, Kang LY. Effect of borneol on the transdermal permeation of drugs with differing lipophilicity and molecular organization of stratum corneum lipids. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2015; 42:1086-93. [PMID: 26635061 DOI: 10.3109/03639045.2015.1107095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present paper was to investigate the promoting activity of borneol on the transdermal permeation of drugs with differing lipophilicity, and probe its alterations in molecular organization of stratum corneum (SC) lipids. The toxicity of borneol was evaluated in epidermal keratinocyte HaCaT and dermal fibroblast CCC-HSF-1 cell cultures and compared to known enhancers, and its irritant profile was also assessed by transepidermal water loss (TEWL) evaluation. The promoting effect of borneol on the transdermal permeation of five model drugs, namely 5-fluorouracil, antipyrine, aspirin, salicylic acid and ibuprofen, which were selected based on their lipophilicity denoted by logp value, were performed using in vitro skin permeation studies. Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) was employed to monitor the borneol-induced alteration in molecular organization of SC lipids. The enhancer borneol displayed lower cytotoxicity or irritation in comparison to the well-established and standard enhancer Azone. Borneol could effectively promote the transdermal permeation of five model drugs, and its enhancement ratios were found to be parabolic curve with the logp values of drugs, which exhibited the optimum permeation activity for relatively hydrophilic drugs (an estimated logp value of -0.5 ∼0.5). The molecular mechanism studies suggested that borneol could perturb the structure of SC lipid alkyl chains, and extract part of SC lipids, resulting in the alteration in the skin permeability barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Feng Yi
- a Xiang Ya Nursing School of Central South University , Changsha , China ;,b Nursing Department , the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University , Changsha , China
| | - Jin Yan
- a Xiang Ya Nursing School of Central South University , Changsha , China ;,b Nursing Department , the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University , Changsha , China
| | - Si-Yuan Tang
- a Xiang Ya Nursing School of Central South University , Changsha , China
| | - Hui Huang
- b Nursing Department , the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University , Changsha , China
| | - Li-Yang Kang
- c Department of Dermatology , the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University , Changsha , China
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Ahad A, Aqil M, Ali A. The application of anethole, menthone, and eugenol in transdermal penetration of valsartan: Enhancement and mechanistic investigation. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2015; 54:1042-51. [PMID: 26510896 PMCID: PMC11132634 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2015.1100639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The main barrier for transdermal delivery is the obstacle property of the stratum corneum. Many types of chemical penetration enhancers have been used to breach the skin barrier; among the penetration enhancers, terpenes are found as the most highly advanced, safe, and proven category. OBJECTIVE In the present investigation, the terpenes anethole, menthone, and eugenol were used to enhance the permeation of valsartan through rat skin in vitro and their enhancement mechanism was investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS Skin permeation studies of valsartan across rat skin in the absence and the presence of terpenes at 1% w/v, 3% w/v, and 5% w/v in vehicle were carried out using the transdermal diffusion cell sampling system across rat skin and samples were withdrawn from the receptor compartment at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 24 h and analysed for drug content by the HPLC method. The mechanism of skin permeation enhancement of valsartan by terpenes treatment was evaluated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). RESULTS All the investigated terpenes provided a significant (p < 0.01) enhancement in the valsartan flux at a concentration of 1%, and less so at 3% and 5%. The effectiveness of terpenes at 1% concentration was in the following order: anethole > menthone > eugenol with 4.4-, 4.0-, and 3.0-fold enhancement ratio over control, respectively. DSC study showed that the treatment of stratum corneum with anethole shifted endotherm down to lower melting point while FTIR studies revealed that anethole produced maximum decrease in peak height and area than other two terpenes. CONCLUSION The investigated terpenes can be successfully used as potential enhancers for the enhancement of skin permeation of lipophilic drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Ahad
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohd. Aqil
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard (Hamdard University), New Delhi, India
| | - Asgar Ali
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard (Hamdard University), New Delhi, India
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Selzer D, Neumann D, Schaefer UF. Mathematical models for dermal drug absorption. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2015; 11:1567-83. [PMID: 26166490 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2015.1063615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Mathematical models of dermal transport offer the advantages of being much faster and less expensive than in vitro or in vivo studies. The number of methods used to create such models has been increasing rapidly, probably due to the steady rise in computational power. Although each of the various approaches has its own virtues and limitations, it may be difficult to decide which approach is best suited to address a given problem. AREAS COVERED Here we outline the basic ideas, drawbacks and advantages of compartmental and quantitative structure-activity relationship models, as well as of analytical and numerical approaches for solving the diffusion equation. Examples of special applications of the different approaches are given. EXPERT OPINION Although some models are sophisticated and might be used in future to predict transport through damaged or diseased skin, the comparatively low availability of suitable and accurate experimental data limits extensive usage of these models and their predictive accuracy. Due to the lack of experimental data, the possibility of validating mathematical models is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Selzer
- a 1 Saarland University, Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology , 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany.,b 2 Scientific Consilience GmbH, Saarland University , Bldg. 30, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany +49 681 302 71230 ; +49 681 302 64956 ;
| | - Dirk Neumann
- a 1 Saarland University, Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology , 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany.,b 2 Scientific Consilience GmbH, Saarland University , Bldg. 30, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany +49 681 302 71230 ; +49 681 302 64956 ;
| | - Ulrich F Schaefer
- c 3 Saarland University, Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology , 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
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Carreras N, Alonso C, Martí M, Lis MJ. Mass transport model through the skin by microencapsulation system. J Microencapsul 2015; 32:358-63. [DOI: 10.3109/02652048.2015.1028495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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21
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Lan Y, Wang J, Li H, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Zhao B, Wu Q. Effect of menthone and related compounds on skin permeation of drugs with different lipophilicity and molecular organization of stratum corneum lipids. Pharm Dev Technol 2015; 21:389-98. [DOI: 10.3109/10837450.2015.1011660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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22
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Lan Y, Li H, Chen YY, Zhang YW, Liu N, Zhang Q, Wu Q. Essential oil from Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. and its main components used as transdermal penetration enhancers: a comparative study. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 2014; 15:940-52. [PMID: 25367787 PMCID: PMC4228507 DOI: 10.1631/jzus.b1400158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Our previous studies had confirmed that the essential oil from Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. (Z. bungeanum oil) could effectively enhance the percutaneous permeation of drug molecules as a natural transdermal penetration enhancer. The aim of the present study is to investigate and compare the skin penetration enhancement effect of Z. bungeanum oil and its main components on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) active components. Toxicities of Z. bungeanum oil and three selected terpene compounds (terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-cineole, and limonene) in epidermal keratinocytes (HaCaT) and dermal fibroblast (CCC-ESF-1) cell lines were measured using an MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. Five model drugs in TCM external preparations, namely osthole (OT), tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), ferulic acid (FA), puerarin (PR), and geniposide (GP), which were selected based on their lipophilicity denoted by logKo/w, were tested using in vitro permeation studies in which vertical Franz diffusion cells and rat abdominal skin were employed. The secondary structure changes of skin stratum corneum (SC) and drug thermodynamic activities were investigated to understand their mechanisms of action using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and saturation solubility studies, respectively. It was found that Z. bungeanum oil showed lower toxicities in both HaCaT cells and CCC-ESF-1 cells compared with three terpene compounds used alone. The enhancement permeation capacities by all tested agents were in the following increasing order: terpinen-4-ol≈1,8-cineole
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23
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Moran JW, Bell S. Skin permeation of organic gunshot residue: implications for sampling and analysis. Anal Chem 2014; 86:6071-9. [PMID: 24837230 DOI: 10.1021/ac501227e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Traditional gunshot residue (GSR) analysis is based on detection of particulates formed from metals found in the primer. Recent concerns regarding the interpretation of GSR evidence has led to interest in alternatives such as the organic constituents (organic gunshot residue, OGSR) found in propellants. Previous work has shown OGSR to be detectable on hands for several hours after a firing event, and given the lipophilic nature of these compounds, it was expected that losses due to secondary transfer (an issue with GSR particulates) would be negligible. However, other loss mechanisms have been identified, specifically skin permeation and evaporation. This paper describes experimental and modeling studies used to elucidate characteristics of skin permeation of 5 compounds present in OGSR. Pharmaceutical methods were adapted to characterize skin permeation using a skin surrogate and Franz diffusion cells. The amount of compounds deposited on skin after an authentic firing event (1 and 2 shots) was experimentally determined and applied for the permeation experiments. A fully validated selected ion monitoring GC/MS method was developed for quantitative analysis, and easily accessible online tools were employed for modeling. Results showed that OGSR residues should be detectable on skin for many hours after a firing event of as few as one or two shots, with detection capability being a function of the efficacy of sampling and sample preparation and the instrumental method employed. The permeation rates of the OGSR compounds were sufficiently different to suggest the potential to develop methods to approximate time-since-deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Wade Moran
- C. Eugene Bennett Department of Chemistry, West Virginia University , 1600 University Avenue, Oglebay Hall Room 208, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
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24
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Capelli C, Foppiano D, Venturelli G, Carlini E, Magi E, Ianni C. Determination of Arsenic, Cadmium, Cobalt, Chromium, Nickel, and Lead in Cosmetic Face-Powders: Optimization of Extraction and Validation. ANAL LETT 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2013.865207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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25
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Salunkhe SS, Bhatia NM, Thorat JD, Choudhari PB, Bhatia MS. Formulation, development and evaluation of ibuprofen loaded nanoemulsion prepared by nanoprecipitation technique: use of factorial design approach as a tool of optimization methodology. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-014-0125-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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26
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Leggieri MC, Van der Fels-Klerx H, Battilani P. Cross-validation of predictive models for deoxynivalenol in wheat at harvest. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2013. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2013.1546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To date, several models that predict deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat at harvest are available. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of two of such models, including a mechanistic model developed in Italy and an empirical model developed in the Netherlands. To this end, field data collected in the periods 2002-2004 and 2009-2011 in Italy, and in the period 2001-2010 in the Netherlands were used. These historical data covered farm observations at 1,306 wheat fields, of which 155 in the Netherlands and 1,151 in Italy. A subset of 10% of the Italian data, derived by random sampling from the total Italian dataset, was used to validate both the Italian and the Dutch model. Additionally, the Italian mechanistic model was validated using the total Dutch dataset. Before validating the Dutch model, it was recalibrated using the remaining 90% of the Italian data. Results showed that predictions of both modelling approaches (mechanistic and empirical) for independent wheat fields were in accordance. Applying a threshold for DON concentration of 1,250 ?g/kg, the mechanistic DON model predicted 90% of the samples correctly. Results for cross-validation of the mechanistic DON model and the recalibrated empirical DON model showed that 93% of the samples were correctly predicted. In general, no more than 6% of underestimates were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Camardo Leggieri
- Institute of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - H.J. Van der Fels-Klerx
- RIKILT Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - P. Battilani
- Institute of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense 84, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
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27
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Khajeh A, Modarress H. Linear and nonlinear quantitative structure-property relationship modelling of skin permeability. SAR AND QSAR IN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2013; 25:35-50. [PMID: 24090175 DOI: 10.1080/1062936x.2013.826275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In this work, quantitative structure-property relationship (QSPR) models were developed to estimate skin permeability based on theoretically derived molecular descriptors and a diverse set of experimental data. The newly developed method combining modified particle swarm optimization (MPSO) and multiple linear regression (MLR) was used to select important descriptors and develop the linear model using a training set of 225 compounds. The adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) was used as an efficient nonlinear method to correlate the selected descriptors with experimental skin permeability data (log Kp). The linear and nonlinear models were assessed by internal and external validation. The obtained models with three descriptors show good predictive ability for the test set, with coefficients of determination for the MPSO-MLR and ANFIS models equal to 0.874 and 0.890, respectively. The QSPR study suggests that hydrophobicity (encoded as log P) is the most important factor in transdermal penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Khajeh
- a Department of Chemical Engineering , Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic) , Tehran , Iran
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28
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Souza J, Meira A, Volpato NM, Mayorga P, Gottfried C. Effect of phonophoresis on skin permeation of commercial anti-inflammatory gels: sodium diclofenac and ketoprofen. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2013; 39:1623-1630. [PMID: 23820249 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2013.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Revised: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/16/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluated the use of ultrasound in combination with the commercial anti-inflammatory drugs ketoprofen and sodium diclofenac, according to the parameters used in physiotherapy. Ketoprofen and sodium diclofenac were used in the Franz diffusion cell model adapted to an ultrasound transducer in three conditions: no ultrasound, one application of ultrasound and two applications of ultrasound. High-performance liquid chromatography was used to quantify the total amount of drug permeating skin per unit area, as well as flux and latency. The results showed that for ketoprofen, the amount of drug permeating skin and flux increased with two ultrasound applications. Permeation of sodium diclofenac decreased in the presence of ultrasound. Ultrasound parameters and drug properties must be considered in the use of phonophoresis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaqueline Souza
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Health's Basic Science, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Salunkhe SS, Bhatia NM, Pokharkar VB, Thorat JD, Bhatia MS. Topical delivery of Idebenone using nanostructured lipid carriers: evaluations of sun-protection and anti-oxidant effects. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-013-0079-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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30
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Dancik Y, Miller MA, Jaworska J, Kasting GB. Design and performance of a spreadsheet-based model for estimating bioavailability of chemicals from dermal exposure. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:221-36. [PMID: 22285584 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive transient model of chemical penetration through the stratum corneum, viable epidermis and dermis formulated in terms of an Excel™ spreadsheet and associated add-in is presented. The model is a one-dimensional homogenization of underlying microscopic transport models for stratum corneum and dermis; viable epidermis is treated as unperfused dermis. The model's salient features are a detailed structural description of the skin layers, a combination of first-principles based transport equations and empirical partition and diffusion coefficients, and the capability of simulating a variety of exposure scenarios. Model predictions are compared with representative in vitro skin permeation data obtained from the literature using as summary parameters total absorption (Q(abs)), maximum flux (J(max)) and skin permeability coefficient (k(p)). The results of this evaluation demonstrate the current state-of-the-art in prediction of transient skin absorption and highlight areas in which further elaborations are needed to obtain satisfactory predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Dancik
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Strombeek-Bever, Belgium
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31
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Polak S, Ghobadi C, Mishra H, Ahamadi M, Patel N, Jamei M, Rostami-Hodjegan A. Prediction of Concentration–Time Profile and its Inter-Individual Variability following the Dermal Drug Absorption. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:2584-95. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Revised: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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32
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Brown MB, Lau CH, Lim ST, Sun Y, Davey N, Moss GP, Yoo SH, De Muynck C. An evaluation of the potential of linear and nonlinear skin permeation models for the prediction of experimentally measured percutaneous drug absorption. J Pharm Pharmacol 2012; 64:566-77. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2011.01436.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
The developments in combinatorial chemistry have led to a rapid increase in drug design and discovery and, ultimately, the production of many potential molecules that require evaluation. Hence, there has been much interest in the use of mathematical models to predict dermal absorption. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test the performance of both linear and nonlinear models to predict the skin permeation of a series of 11 compounds.
Methods
The modelling in this study was carried out by the application of both quantitative structure permeability relationships and Gaussian process-based machine learning methods to predict the flux and permeability coefficient of the 11 compounds. The actual permeation of these compounds across human skin was measured using Franz cells and a standard protocol with high performance liquid chromatography analysis. Statistical comparison between the predicted and experimentally-derived values was performed using mean squared error and the Pearson sample correlation coefficient.
Key findings
The findings of this study would suggest that the models failed to accurately predict permeation and in some cases were not within two- or three-orders of magnitude of the experimentally-derived values. However, with this set of compounds the models were able to effectively rank the permeants.
Conclusions
Although not suitable for accurately predicting permeation the models may be suitable for determining a rank order of permeation, which may help to select candidate molecules for in-vitro screening. However, it is important to note that such predictions need to take into account actual relative drug candidate potencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc B Brown
- MedPharm Ltd, Unit 3/Chancellor Court, Surrey Research Park, Guildford, UK
- School of Pharmacy, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, UK
| | - Chi-Hian Lau
- MedPharm Ltd, Unit 3/Chancellor Court, Surrey Research Park, Guildford, UK
| | - Sian T Lim
- MedPharm Ltd, Unit 3/Chancellor Court, Surrey Research Park, Guildford, UK
| | - Yi Sun
- School of Pharmacy, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, UK
| | - Neail Davey
- School of Pharmacy, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, UK
| | - Gary P Moss
- School of Pharmacy, Keele University, Keele, UK
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Olatunji O, Das DB, Nassehi V. Modelling Transdermal Drug Delivery Using Microneedles: Effect of Geometry on Drug Transport Behaviour. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:164-75. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2011] [Revised: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 08/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Wen MM, El-Kamel AH, Khalil SA. Systemic enhancement of papaverine transdermal gel for erectile dysfunction. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2011; 38:912-22. [DOI: 10.3109/03639045.2011.633262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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35
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Mathematical modeling of simultaneous drug release and in vivo absorption. Int J Pharm 2011; 418:130-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2010.12.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Revised: 12/22/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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36
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Padamwar MN, Patole MS, Pokharkar VB. Chitosan-reduced gold nanoparticles: a novel carrier for the preparation of spray-dried liposomes for topical delivery. J Liposome Res 2011; 21:324-32. [DOI: 10.3109/08982104.2011.575380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Sammeta SM, Repka MA, Narasimha Murthy S. Magnetophoresis in combination with chemical enhancers for transdermal drug delivery. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2011; 37:1076-82. [PMID: 21449699 DOI: 10.3109/03639045.2011.559659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The objective of the present work was to investigate the effect of combination of a novel physical permeation enhancement technique, magnetophoresis with chemical permeation enhancers on the transdermal delivery of drugs. METHODS The in vitro drug transport studies were carried out across the freshly excised abdominal skin of Sprague-Dawley rats using transdermal patch systems (magnetophoretic and non-magnetophoretic) of lidocaine hydrochloride (LH). LH gel prepared using hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) was spread over the magnets as a thin layer. To investigate the effect of chemical permeation enhancers, menthol, dimethyl sulfoxide, sodium lauryl sulfate and urea (5% w/v) were incorporated in the gels prior to loading on the patch system. RESULTS The flux of lidocaine from magnetophoretic patch was ~3-fold higher (3.07 ± 0.43 µg/cm(2)/h) than that of the control (non-magnetophoretic patch) (0.94 ± 0.13 µg/cm(2)/h). Incorporation of chemical permeation enhancers in the gel enhanced the magnetophoretic delivery flux by ~4 to 7-fold. CONCLUSIONS The enhancement factor due to combination of chemical permeation enhancer was additive and not synergistic. Mechanistic studies indicated that magnetophoresis mediated drug delivery enhancement was via appendageal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasa M Sammeta
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
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Jampilek J, Brychtova K. Azone analogues: classification, design, and transdermal penetration principles. Med Res Rev 2010; 32:907-47. [DOI: 10.1002/med.20227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Josef Jampilek
- Department of Chemical Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno; Palackeho 1-3 612 42 Brno Czech Republic
- Zentiva k.s., U kabelovny 130; 102 37 Prague 10 Czech Republic
| | - Katerina Brychtova
- Department of Chemical Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy; University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno; Palackeho 1-3 612 42 Brno Czech Republic
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Zhang Y, Huo M, Zhou J, Zou A, Li W, Yao C, Xie S. DDSolver: an add-in program for modeling and comparison of drug dissolution profiles. AAPS J 2010; 12:263-71. [PMID: 20373062 PMCID: PMC2895453 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-010-9185-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 887] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, several mathematical models have been developed for analysis of drug dissolution data, and many different mathematical approaches have been proposed to assess the similarity between two drug dissolution profiles. However, until now, no computer program has been reported for simplifying the calculations involved in the modeling and comparison of dissolution profiles. The purposes of this article are: (1) to describe the development of a software program, called DDSolver, for facilitating the assessment of similarity between drug dissolution data; (2) to establish a model library for fitting dissolution data using a nonlinear optimization method; and (3) to provide a brief review of available approaches for comparing drug dissolution profiles. DDSolver is a freely available program which is capable of performing most existing techniques for comparing drug release data, including exploratory data analysis, univariate ANOVA, ratio test procedures, the difference factor f (1), the similarity factor f (2), the Rescigno indices, the 90% confidence interval (CI) of difference method, the multivariate statistical distance method, the model-dependent method, the bootstrap f (2) method, and Chow and Ki's time series method. Sample runs of the program demonstrated that the results were satisfactory, and DDSolver could be served as a useful tool for dissolution data analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- />Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24, Tongjiaxiang, 210009 Nanjing, China
| | - Meirong Huo
- />Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24, Tongjiaxiang, 210009 Nanjing, China
| | - Jianping Zhou
- />Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24, Tongjiaxiang, 210009 Nanjing, China
| | - Aifeng Zou
- />Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24, Tongjiaxiang, 210009 Nanjing, China
| | - Weize Li
- />Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24, Tongjiaxiang, 210009 Nanjing, China
| | - Chengli Yao
- />Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 24, Tongjiaxiang, 210009 Nanjing, China
| | - Shaofei Xie
- />Key Laboratory of Drug Quality Control and Pharmacovigilance, Ministry of Education, Center for Instrumental Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, No.24, Tongjiaxiang, 210009 Nanjing, China
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40
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Effect of lipid nanoparticles containing fatty alcohols having different chain length on the ex vivo skin permeability of Econazole nitrate. POWDER TECHNOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2010.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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41
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Bajot F. The Use of Qsar and Computational Methods in Drug Design. CHALLENGES AND ADVANCES IN COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-9783-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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42
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Lim PFC, Liu XY, Chan SY. A Review on Terpenes as Skin Penetration Enhancers in Transdermal Drug Delivery. JOURNAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL RESEARCH 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/10412905.2009.9700208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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43
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Ray Chaudhuri S, Kasting GB, Krantz WB. Percutaneous absorption of volatile solvents following transient liquid exposures: I. Model development. Chem Eng Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2008.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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44
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Bernardo FP, Saraiva PM. A theoretical model for transdermal drug delivery from emulsions and its dependence upon formulation. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:3781-809. [PMID: 18186500 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This article presents a theoretical model of transdermal drug delivery from an emulsion-type vehicle that addresses the vehicle heterogeneity and incorporates the prediction of drug transport parameters as function of the vehicle composition. The basic mass transfer model considers interfacial and diffusion resistances within the emulsion and partition/diffusion phenomena across two skin compartments in series. Drug transport parameters are predicted as follows: partition coefficients are derived from regular solutions theory, drug diffusivity in the continuous phase is computed from a free volume theory with segmental motion, and permeability of the surfactant layer around droplets is estimated based on a free surface area model. These relationships are incorporated within the basic mass transfer model, so that the overall model is able to predict temporal profiles of drug release from the vehicle and of drug concentration in plasma, as a function of vehicle composition. In this way, the proposed model provides a sound physicochemical basis to support the development of new formulations and the planning of experiments. A simulated case study regarding a nitroglycerin ointment is presented in detail, illustrating how thermodynamic and kinetic factors inherent to the emulsion vehicle can modulate drug release and subsequent systemic absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando P Bernardo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, GEPSI-PSE Group, University of Coimbra, Pólo II-Rua Sílvio Lima, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal.
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45
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Rao Y, Zheng F, Zhang X, Gao J, Liang W. In vitro percutaneous permeation and skin accumulation of finasteride using vesicular ethosomal carriers. AAPS PharmSciTech 2008; 9:860-5. [PMID: 18649143 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-008-9124-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2008] [Accepted: 06/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to develop a novel transdermal drug delivery system that facilitates the skin permeation of finasteride encapsulated in novel lipid-based vesicular carriers (ethosomes)finasteride ethosomes were constructed and the morphological characteristics were studied by transmission electron microscopy. The particle size, zeta potential and the entrapment capacity of ethosome were also determined. In contrast to liposomes ethosomes were of more condensed vesicular structure and they were found to be oppositely charged. Ethosomes were found to be more efficient delivery carriers with high encapsulation capacities. In vitro percutaneous permeation experiments demonstrated that the permeation of finasteride through human cadaver skin was significantly increased when ethosomes were used. The finasteride transdermal fluxes from ethosomes containing formulation (1.34 +/- 0.11 microg/cm(2)/h) were 7.4, 3.2 and 2.6 times higher than that of finasteride from aqueous solution, conventional liposomes and hydroethanolic solution respectively (P < 0.01).Furthermore, ethosomes produced a significant (P < 0.01) finasteride accumulation in the skin, especially in deeper layers, for instance in dermis it reached to 18.2 +/- 1.8 microg/cm(2). In contrast, the accumulation of finasteride in the dermis was only 2.8 +/- 1.3 microg/cm(2) with liposome formulation. The study demonstrated that ethosomes are promising vesicular carriers for enhancing percutaneous absorption of finasteride.
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46
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Sapra B, Jain S, Tiwary AK. Percutaneous permeation enhancement by terpenes: mechanistic view. AAPS J 2008; 10:120-32. [PMID: 18446512 PMCID: PMC2751457 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-008-9012-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2007] [Accepted: 01/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A popular approach for improving transdermal drug delivery involves the use of penetration enhancers (sorption promoters or accelerants) which penetrate into skin to reversibly reduce the barrier resistance. The potential mechanisms of action of penetration enhancers include disruption of intercellular lipid and/or keratin domains and tight junctions. This results in enhanced drug partitioning into tissue, altered thermodynamic activity/solubility of drug etc. Synthetic chemicals (solvents, azones, pyrrolidones, surfactants etc.) generally used for this purpose are rapidly losing their value in transdermal patches due to reports of their absorption into the systemic circulation and subsequent possible toxic effect upon long term application. Terpenes are included in the list of Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) substances and have low irritancy potential. Their mechanism of percutaneous permeation enhancement involves increasing the solubility of drugs in skin lipids, disruption of lipid/protein organization and/or extraction of skin micro constituents that are responsible for maintenance of barrier status. Hence, they appear to offer great promise for use in transdermal formulations. This article is aimed at reviewing the mechanisms responsible for percutaneous permeation enhancement activity of terpenes, which shall foster their rational use in transdermal formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bharti Sapra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, 147002 India
| | - Subheet Jain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, 147002 India
| | - A. K. Tiwary
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, 147002 India
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47
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Lian G, Chen L, Han L. An evaluation of mathematical models for predicting skin permeability. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:584-98. [PMID: 17722002 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
A number of mathematical models have been proposed for predicting skin permeability, mostly empirical and very few are deterministic. Early empirical models use simple lipophilicity parameters. The recent trend is to use more complicated molecular structure descriptors. There has been much debate on which models best predict skin permeability. This article evaluates various mathematical models using a comprehensive experimental dataset of skin permeability for 124 chemical compounds compiled from various sources. Of the seven models compared, the deterministic model of Mitragotri gives the best prediction. The simple quantitative structure permeability relationships (QSPR) model of Potts and Guy gives the second best prediction. The two models have many features in common. Both assume the lipid matrix as the pathway of transdermal permeation. Both use octanol-water partition coefficient and molecular size. Even the mathematical formulae are similar. All other empirical QSPR models that use more complicated molecular structure descriptors fail to provide satisfactory prediction. The molecular structure descriptors in the more complicated QSPR models are empirically related to skin permeation. The mechanism on how these descriptors affect transdermal permeation is not clear. Mathematically it is an ill-defined approach to use many colinearly related parameters rather than fewer independent parameters in multi-linear regression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoping Lian
- Unilever Corporate Research, Colworth, Sharnbrook, Bedford, UK
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48
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Kang L, Yap CW, Lim PFC, Chen YZ, Ho PC, Chan YW, Wong GP, Chan SY. Formulation development of transdermal dosage forms: Quantitative structure-activity relationship model for predicting activities of terpenes that enhance drug penetration through human skin. J Control Release 2007; 120:211-9. [PMID: 17582639 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2007.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2006] [Revised: 04/19/2007] [Accepted: 05/05/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Terpenes and terpenoids have been used as enhancers in transdermal formulations for facilitating penetration of drugs into human skin. Knowledge of the correlation between the human skin penetration effect (HSPE) and the physicochemical properties of these enhancers is important for facilitating the discovery and development of more enhancers. In this work, the HSPE of 49 terpenes and terpenoids were compared by the in vitro permeability coefficients of haloperidol (HP) through excised human skin. A first-order multiple linear regression (MLR) model was constructed to link the permeability coefficient of the drug to the lipophilicity, molecular weight, boiling point, the terpene type and the functional group of each enhancer. The Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) model was derived from our data generated by using standardized experimental protocols, which include: HP in propylene glycol (PG) of 3 mg/ml as the donor solution containing 5% (w/v) of the respective terpene, the same composition and volume of receptor solution, similar human skin samples, in the same set of automated flow-through diffusion cells. The model provided a simple method to predict the enhancing effects of terpenes for drugs with physicochemical properties similar to HP. Our study suggested that an ideal terpene enhancer should possess at least one or combinations of the following properties: hydrophobic, in liquid form at room temperature, with an ester or aldehyde but not acid functional group, and is neither a triterpene nor tetraterpene. Possible mechanisms revealed by the QSAR model were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kang
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore
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49
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Neumann D, Kohlbacher O, Merkwirth C, Lengauer T. A Fully Computational Model for Predicting Percutaneous Drug Absorption. J Chem Inf Model 2005; 46:424-9. [PMID: 16426076 DOI: 10.1021/ci050332t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The prediction of transdermal absorption for arbitrary penetrant structures has several important applications in the pharmaceutical industry. We propose a new data-driven, predictive model for skin permeability coefficients k(p) based on an ensemble model using k-nearest-neighbor models and ridge regression. The model was trained and validated with a newly assembled data set containing experimental data and structures for 110 compounds. On the basis of three purely computational descriptors (molecular weight, calculated octanol/water partition coefficient, and solvation free energy), we have developed a model allowing for the reliable, purely computational prediction of skin permeability coefficients. The model is both accurate and robust, as we showed in an extensive validation (correlation coefficient for leave-one-out cross validation: Q = 0.948, mean standard error: 0.2 for log k(p)).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Neumann
- Center for Bioinformatics Saar, Bldg. 36.1, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany.
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50
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Li Y, Rauth AM, Wu XY. Prediction of kinetics of doxorubicin release from sulfopropyl dextran ion-exchange microspheres using artificial neural networks. Eur J Pharm Sci 2005; 24:401-10. [PMID: 15784330 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2004.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2004] [Accepted: 12/09/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this work was to develop artificial neural networks (ANN) models to predict in vitro release kinetics of doxorubicin (Dox) delivered by sulfopropyl dextran ion-exchange microspheres. Four ANN models for responses at different time points were developed to describe the release profiles of Dox. Model selection was performed using the Akaike information criterion (AIC). Sixteen data sets were used to train the ANN models and two data sets for the validation. Good correlations were obtained between the observed and predicted release profiles for the two randomly selected validation data sets. The difference factor (f1) and similarity factor (f2) between the ANN predicted and the observed release profiles indicated good performance of the ANN models. The established models were then applied to predict release kinetics of Dox from the microspheres of various initial loadings in media of different ionic strengths and NaCl/CaCl2 ratios. The results suggested that ANN offered a flexible and effective approach to predicting the kinetics of Dox release from the ion-exchange microspheres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongqiang Li
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M5S 2S2
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