[Physiopathology of the diabetic foot]

New insights into the roles of Irisin in diabetic cardiomyopathy and vascular diseases

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a prevalent chronic disease in the 21st century due to increased lifespan and unhealthy lifestyle choices. Extensive research indicates that exercise can play a significant role in regulating systemic metabolism by improving energy metabolism and mitigating various metabolic disorders, including DM. Irisin, a well-known exerkine, was initially reported to enhance energy expenditure by indicating the browning of white adipose tissue (WAT) through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) signaling. In this review, we summarize the potential mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of Irisin on glucose dysmetabolism, including reducing gluconeogenesis, enhancing insulin energy expenditure, and promoting glycogenesis. Additionally, we highlight Irisin's potential to improve diabetic vascular diseases by stimulating nitric oxide (NO) production, reducing oxidative and nitrosative stress, curbing inflammation, and attenuating endothelial cell aging. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of Irisin to improve diabetic cardiomyopathy by preventing cardiomyocyte loss and reducing myocardial hypertrophy and fibrosis. Given Irisin's promising functions in managing diabetic cardiomyopathy and vascular diseases, targeting Irisin for therapeutic purposes could be a fruitful avenue for future research and clinical interventions.

Efficacy and safety of external therapy of TCM for diabetic peripheral vascular disease: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

In modern society, the incidence of diabetes is increasing yearly, and poor glycemic control can accelerate the progression and severity of diabetic peripheral vascular disease. External treatment with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely used in the treatment of diabetes, but there is no systematic review on the external treatment of TCM for diabetic peripheral vascular disease; therefore, this study aimed to conduct a meta-analysis on the clinical efficacy and safety of external treatment of TCM in the treatment of diabetic peripheral vascular diseases.

METHODS

We searched The Cochrane Library, PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, China Science and Technology Journal, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, and other sources from their respective inception dates to October 20, 2022, to identify potentially eligible studies. We will use Review Manager 5.4 software provided by the Cochrane Collaborative Network for statistical analysis. We then assessed the quality and risk of the included studies and observed their outcome measures.

RESULTS

Changes in the bilateral femoral artery, popliteal artery, dorsal artery diameter, blood flow, ankle/brachial index, and dorsal foot temperature: An overall reduction in symptoms (a reduction in diabetes-related symptoms that occur only during the intervention or as a result of the intervention, including peripheral vascular disease).

CONCLUSION

The objective of this meta-analysis was to investigate the influence of external treatment of traditional Chinese medicine on diabetic peripheral vascular disease and to provide more methods for the clinical prevention and treatment of diabetic peripheral vascular disease.

Irisin restores high glucose-induced cell injury in vascular endothelial cells by activating Notch pathway via Notch receptor 1

Diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) are a vascular complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). It has been confirmed that irisin is closely related to DM. However, the effect of irisin on DFU is obscure and needs further study. After human umbilical vein endothelial cell lines (HUVECs) were treated with different concentrations' irisin, normal glucose, high glucose (HG), HG plus irisin-high (H) or sh-Notch1, cell biological behaviors, LDH, and VEGFA were detected by cell function experiments. Apoptosis- and Notch pathway-related protein levels were evaluated by Western blot. Irisin has no cytotoxicity, and irisin-H elevated cell viability and inhibited apoptosis and LDH level in HG-induced HUVECs. Meanwhile, irisin-H restored HG-repressed migration and angiogenesis in HUVECs. Irisin-H inhibited apoptosis-related protein levels and promoted VEGFA and Notch pathway-related protein levels in HG-treated HUVECs. Additionally, sh-Notch1 reversed the protective effect of irisin-H in HG-treated HUVECs. Irisin restores HG-induced cell injury and angiogenesis in HUVECs by activating Notch pathway via Notch1.

A Meta-Analysis of the Outcomes of Metatarsal Head Resection for the Treatment of Neuropathic Diabetic Foot Ulcers

Significance: Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are associated with high morbidity, mortality, and health costs. Standard care (SC) associated with nonsurgical offloading is the mainstay treatment for DFUs, but it has high recurrence and infection rates. Metatarsal head resection (MHR) has been proposed as an effective surgical offloading technique for the treatment of plantar neuropathic DFUs, but with no evidence synthesis yet. Recent Advances: Based on PRISMA guidelines, a meta-analysis was conducted to assess the efficacy of MHR. Four electronic databases were searched for. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria with a total of 477 patients (494 feet and 593 neuropathic forefoot ulcers). The studies included three retrospective comparative studies and eight case series. Critical Issues: Meta-analytical results of comparative studies on recent noninfected DFUs showed MHR having significantly better rates of healing, time to healing, ulcer recurrence, and infection than SC. Failure to heal, recurrence, and infection rates were 4 times higher in the SC group than in the MHR group, and the amputation rate was two times higher in the SC group than in the MHR group. The outcomes of the meta-analysis of case series on chronic and recalcitrant ulcers treated with MHR were similar. Future Directions: Considering the natural history of DFUs treated conservatively and the satisfactory outcomes with a significantly low complication rate of MHR, physicians should consider the use of MHR more often and include this technique in the early management of DFUs. Scope and Significance: DFU impose great public health burden around the globe. Standard of care using in-office debridement and topical agents is the usual mainstay of treatment. However, such conservative care is known to result in high rates of ulcer recurrence and complications. In this systematic review, we quantitatively investigate the outcomes of a surgical off-loading technique, the MHR in the treatment of chronic plantar neuropathic wounds. Translational Relevance: Many biochemical factors are implicated in the complex process of wound healing. In the case of diabetic neuropathic ulcers of the forefoot, additional mechanical factors induced by the presence of diabetic neuropathy lead to high pressure loads of the metatarsal heads on the plantar skin. With time, such chronic loads could favor ulcer formation. Removal of the causal mechanical factor could alleviate the pressure and allow wound healing. Clinical Relevance: Neuropathic plantar ulcers are difficult-to-heal wounds and chronicity is associated to frequent hospitalizations, higher rates of amputation, and mortality. Early removal of the indirect causal agent, the resection of the metatarsal head, after failure of a well-conducted conservative standard of care could be a needed solution for wound healing and consequently a potential for reducing complications and costs.

Advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs) controls proliferation, invasion and permeability through orchestrating ARHGAP18/RhoA pathway in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Diabetic vascular complications caused by endothelial dysfunction play an important role in the pathogenesis of diabetic foot. A well understanding of the role of endothelial dysfunction in diabetic foot vasculopathy will help to further reveal the pathogenesis of diabetic foot. This study aimed to assess whether the RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway is controlled by Rho GTPase-activating proteins (RhoGAP, ARHGAP) and advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs), and to clarify the roles of ARHGAP and AGEs in the RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway or the mechanism by which AGEs regulated RhoA. Real-time PCR was applied to detect gene expression. Manipulation of endothelial biological functions by ARHGAP18 and AGEs were studied via cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), Western blot, transwell, FITC-Dextran and TEER permeability experiments. RhoA-specific inhibitor Y-27632 was used to silence the activity of RhoA. Dual Luciferase Reporter Assay, Western blot and ELISA assays were used to detect molecular mechanism of endothelial biological functions. In this study, we found that ARHGAP18 was negatively correlated with RhoA, and the expression of ARHGAP18 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was decreased with gradient-increased AGEs. Furthermore, AGEs and ARHGAP18 could orchestrate RhoA activity, then activate NF-κB signaling pathway, affect the structural and morphological of VE-cadherin and tight junction protein, and cause endothelial cell contraction, thereby increasing permeability of endothelial cells. In conclusion, AGEs and ARHGAP18 orchestrate cell proliferation, invasion and permeability by controlling the RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway, affecting NF-κB signaling pathway as well as the structure and morphology of VE-cadherin and tight junction protein, and regulating endothelial cell contraction.

The relationship of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene polymorphism in Turkish type 2 diabetic patients with and without diabetic foot ulcers

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to evaluate the influence of eNOS G894T and VEGF C936T gene polymorphism in diabetic foot ulcers.

METHOD

We studied 50 patients with diabetic foot ulcers and 57 diabetic patients without diabetic foot ulcer and a control group of 75 healthy individuals.

RESULTS

The genotype eNOS distribution did not differ between Type 2 Diabetic Patients group and Diabetic Foot Ulcer group (P>0.05). The frequency of the polymorphic T allele in Type 2 Diabetic Patients were significantly higher than the control group (42.3% and 24.5%, respectively)(p<0.01). The frequency of the polymorphic T allele between the Type 2 Diabetic Patients and Diabetic Foot Ulcer group was similar (p>0.05). The genotype VEGF distribution did not differ between Type 2 Diabetic Patients group and Diabetic Foot Ulcer group (P>0.05). The frequency of the polymorphic T allele between the Type 2 Diabetic Patients and Diabetic Foot Ulcer group was similar for both groups (p>0.05).

CONCLUSION

Polymorphism of eNOS G894T is not a risk factor for diabetic foot ulcer formation. T allele is a risk factor for diabetes, but T allele is not a risk factor for diabetic foot ulcer formation. Polymorphism of VEGF C936T and T allele are not risk factors for diabetes occurence and diabetic foot formation.

Treatment by a moisturizer of xerosis and cracks of the feet in men and women with diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

AIM

To evaluate a moisturizer containing urea, glycerine and petrolatum for healing deep open fissures on the feet of people with diabetes. If left untreated, open fissures, an entry point for bacteria, can lead to infection, ulceration and further complications.

METHODS

This randomized, double-blind, multicentre study at 19 hospitals, general practices and diabetologists in France and Belgium included participants with diabetes and a deep open target fissure on their heel. Participants were randomized to test cream or placebo (1 : 1) for 4 weeks. Complete target fissure healing after 4 weeks (primary criterion) and 2 weeks, target fissure closure, overall fissure healing and xerosis were assessed.

RESULTS

Some 167 participants were randomized (80 to test cream; 87 to placebo); all were included in the efficacy analyses. The percentage of participants with complete target fissure healing after 4 weeks was higher with test cream than placebo (46.3% vs. 33.3%): the difference did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.088). Fewer participants still had a deep open target fissure with test cream than placebo, the difference was statistically significant and clinically relevant after 2 (24.7% vs. 42.7%, P = 0.027) and 4 weeks (6.4% vs. 24.1%, P = 0.002). The difference in overall fissure healing between test cream and placebo was significant (P < 0.001) and test cream resulted in greater xerosis improvement (P < 0.001 and P = 0.002 at 2 and 4 weeks, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The activity of the test cream for treating feet fissures of people with diabetes was confirmed by an improvement in open fissure healing and xerosis. The cream was well tolerated.

[Podiatric risk screening in patients with type 2 diabetes in Antananarivo]

Diabetic foot disease heavily weighs upon diabetics, being a significant cause of morbidity and severe disability. Their prevention is indispensable. Our study aimed to reduce the rate of amputations in diabetics. We conducted a retrospective, descriptive, cross-sectional, multicenter study of podiatric risk screening in patients with type 2 diabetes in the Endocrinology Department at the University Hospital of Befelatanana and at the Amadia Clinic, Faravohitra, over a period of 6 months. The average age of our patients was 54.43 years. Male sex predominated (60%). The patients suffered from diabetes which had evolved, on average, over a period of 7.35 years. The most common patient's history was smoking and chronic ulcerations of the foot. More than half of patients had an imbalance of diabetes, microalbuminuria and retinopathy. 56.50% of patients were aware of their risk but less than 46% of patients gave specific examples of appropriate behaviour. Only 13.33% of patients had undergone foot examination before this study. Their podiatric risk was very high. Predictive factors for ulceration included smoking, a history of chronic ulcer of the lower limbs, an imbalance of diabetes and foot deformity. Effective prevention strategies for amputations should include the screening and the identification of population at risk of ulceration.

The relationship of Interleukin-6 -174 G>C gene polymorphism in type 2 diabetic patients with and without diabetic foot ulcers in Turkish population

OBJECTIVE

We aims investigate Turkish type 2 diabetic patients with/without diabetic foot ulcers and healthy group and examined the contribution of Interleukin (IL)-6 -174 G>C gene polymorphism to the development of diabetic foot ulcers.

DESIGN AND PATIENTS

The Interleukin (IL)-6 -174 G>C genotypes were determined prospectively in 50 patients with diabetic foot ulcers and 35 without diabetic foot ulcers and a control group of 119 healthy individuals. Genotyping of the Interleukin (IL)-6 -174 G>C gene polymorphisms for all individuals was performed by PCR-RFLP method.

RESULTS

The genotype IL6 distribution did differ between the control group (CC 13.3%, GC 66.7%, GG 20%) and type 2 diabetic patients (CC 2.4%, GC 47.1%, GG 50.6%) (P<0.001). The genotype IL6 distribution did not differ between type 2 diabetic patients group (CC 0%, GC 45.7%, GG 54.3%) and diabetic foot ulcers (CC 4%, GC 48%, 48%) (P>0.05). The frequency of the polymorphic G allele in between the control group and type 2 diabetic patients was no similar for the groups (58.4% and 74.1%, respectively) (p<0.05). The frequency of the polymorphic G allele in between the type 2 diabetic patients and diabetic foot ulcers was similar for the groups (77.1% and 72%, respectively) (p>0.05).

CONCLUSION

The gene polymorphism of Interleukin-6 -174 G>C and G allele are an risk factor for diabetes, but gene polymorphism of Interleukin-6 -174 G>C is not an independent risk factor for diabetic foot. Genetic factors in the pathogenesis of diabetic foot may also show any changes in different populations.

Dermatological and musculoskeletal assessment of diabetic foot: A narrative review

AIMS

Diabetic Foot Syndrome (DFS) is the most costly and devastating complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), which early effective assessment can reduce the severity of complications including ulceration and amputations. This study aimed to review dermatological and musculoskeletal assessment of diabetic foot.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this review article, we searched for articles published between March 1, 1980 and July 28, 2015 in PubMed, Science Direct, Embase, Web of Science, and Scopus, for both English and non-English language articles with the following keywords: "Diabetic foot syndrome", "Ulceration", "Amputation", "Foot assessment", "Skin disorders" and "Musculoskeletal deformities".

RESULTS

In dermatological dimension, most studies focused on elucidated changes in skin temperature, color, hardiness and turgor as well as common skin disorders such as Diabetic Dermopathy (DD), Necrobiosis Lipoidica Diabeticorum (NLD) and Diabetic Bullae (DB), which are common in diabetic patients and have high potential for leading to limb-threatening problems such as ulceration and infection. In musculoskeletal dimension, most studies focused on range of motion and muscle strength, gait patterns and as well as foot deformities especially Charcot osteoarthropathy (COA), which is the most destructive musculoskeletal complication of diabetes.

CONCLUSION

DFS as a common condition in DM patients lead to ulceration and lower limb amputation frequently unless a prompt and comprehensive assessment was taken. So that dermatological and musculoskeletal assessments are usually neglected in primary health care, these assessments should be done frequently to reduce the high risk of serious complications.

[Contribution of arterial Doppler ultrasound of the lower limbs in the treatment of diabetic foot at Saint-Jean de Dieu Hospital in Thies (Senegal)]

Introduction

Le pied diabétique se définit comme l'ensemble des manifestations trophiques du pied survenant chez le diabétique par atteinte nerveuse, artérielle et ou infectieuse. Le pied diabétique est un problème majeur de santé publique à l’échelle mondiale avec un taux d'amputation de membres inférieurs très élevé. L’écho-doppler artériel des membres inférieurs est de nos jours incontournable dans la prise en charge du pied diabétique. Le but de cette étude est de montrer la place prépondérante qu'occupe l’écho-doppler artériel dans le bilan lésionnel du pied diabétique.

Méthodes

Nous avons mené une étude rétrospective monocentrique incluant 46 patients sur une période de 24 mois, de mars 2012 à mars 2014 à l'hôpital Saint-Jean de Dieu, un des deux hôpitaux de référence de la région de Thiès, doté depuis juillet 2011 d'un centre moderne de traitement du diabète et des maladies cardio-métaboliques (Diabcarmet). Dans les critères d'inclusion, nous avons sélectionné tous les patients diabétiques adressés pour un écho-doppler artériel des membres inférieurs dans le cadre d'une prise en charge du pied diabétique. Etaient exclus de l’étude, les patients artéritiques non-diabétiques et les patients diabétiques asymptomatiques référés pour un bilan écho-doppler de routine.

Résultats

Le sex-ratio était de 1.42 (27 hommes pour 19 femmes). L’âge moyen des patients était de 62,86 ans avec des extrêmes de 23 et 88 ans. 60% des patients (n=28) étaient âgés entre 50 et 70 ans. Le diabète de type 2 était retrouvé chez 95% des patients (n=44) alors que le diabète de type 1 représentait 5% (n=2). La moyenne d’évolution du diabète était estimée à 8 ans, avec des extrêmes de 2 et 20 ans. On notait une atteinte du pied droit chez 24 patients, une atteinte du pied gauche chez 18 patients et une atteinte bilatérale chez 4 patients. La plupart du temps, les lésions du pied diabétique survenaient sur un terrain de diabète déséquilibré (95%). Cliniquement, ces lésions étaient dominées par la gangrène infectieuse du pied (43.47%), l'abolition des pouls tibiaux et pédieux (17.4%), la gangrène infectieuse des orteils (13.07%), la gangrène mixte du pied (4.34%) et le mal perforant plantaire (4.34%). Sur le plan échographique, vingt-six patients ne présentaient aucune anomalie hémodynamique significative, même si sur le plan morphologique la médiacalcose était retrouvée chez tous nos patients (n=46). Les autres lésions morphologiques et hémodynamiques artérielles étaient dominées par la sténose serrée de l'artère fémorale superficielle chez 6 patients soit 13.04%, les sténoses des artères tibiales antérieures et postérieures chez 4 patients (6.52%) et l'association de plusieurs lésions artérielles chez 4 patients (8.7%). Le taux d'amputation, dans notre série, était de 21.7%.

Conclusion

Le pied diabétique est une complication potentiellement grave du diabète, en Afrique sub-saharienne du fait d'un fort taux d'amputation de membre. L’écho-doppler artériel des membres inférieurs est un moyen d'imagerie non irradiant et non invasif indispensable dans la prise de décision thérapeutique du pied diabétique.

The relationship of the apolipoprotein E gene polymorphism in Turkish Type 2 Diabetic Patients with and without diabetic foot ulcers

AIMS

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene polymorphism in the development of diabetic foot ulcers in Type 2 diabetes Turkish patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ApoE genotypes were determined retrospectively in 50 patients with diabetic foot and 50 without diabetic foot and a control group of 50 healthy individuals.

RESULTS

The genotype ApoE distribution did differ between the control group (E2E3 44%, E3E3 38%, E3E4 18%) and Type 2 Diabetic Patients (E2E3 6%, E3E3 81%, E3E4 16%) (p<0.001). The genotype ApoE distribution did not differ between Type 2 Diabetic Patients group (E2E3 4%, E3E3 86%, E3E4 4%) and diabetic foot ulcers (E2E3 8%, E3E3 76%, E3E4 16%) (p>0.05). The frequency of the E2,E3,E4 allele in between the control group and Type 2 Diabetic Patients were no similar for the groups (E2 22%, E3 69%, E4 9% and E2 3%, E3 90.5%, E4 6.5%, respectively) (p<0.001). The frequency of the E2-E4 allele in between the Type 2 Diabetic Patients and diabetic foot ulcers were similar for the groups (E2 2%, E3 93%, E4 5% and E2 4%, E3 88%, E4 8%, respectively) (p>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The gene polymorphism of ApoE and E3 allele are a risk factor for diabetes, but gene polymorphism of ApoE is not an independent risk factor for diabetic foot. Lack of association between ApoE gene polymorphism and Type 2 diabetic foot ulcers might be due to ethnic differences.

Literature review on the management of diabetic foot ulcer

Diabetic foot ulcer (DFU) is the most costly and devastating complication of diabetes mellitus, which affect 15% of diabetic patients during their lifetime. Based on National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence strategies, early effective management of DFU can reduce the severity of complications such as preventable amputations and possible mortality, and also can improve overall quality of life. The management of DFU should be optimized by using a multidisciplinary team, due to a holistic approach to wound management is required. Based on studies, blood sugar control, wound debridement, advanced dressings and offloading modalities should always be a part of DFU management. Furthermore, surgery to heal chronic ulcer and prevent recurrence should be considered as an essential component of management in some cases. Also, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, electrical stimulation, negative pressure wound therapy, bio-engineered skin and growth factors could be used as adjunct therapies for rapid healing of DFU. So, it’s suggested that with appropriate patient education encourages them to regular foot care in order to prevent DFU and its complications.

[What agents incriminated in athlete's foot? Survey of consulting diabetic patients in CHU Mohammed VI Marrakech]

Les infections mycosiques du pied constituent un motif fréquent de consultation chez les diabétiques, le diabète constituant à la fois un facteur favorisant et aggravant les lésions cutanéomuqueuses. L'objectif de ce travail était d'identifier la flore mycologique locale responsable des lésions du pied chez le diabétique et déterminer les facteurs favorisant la survenue de mycoses. Il s'agissait d'une étude transversale intéressant des diabétiques suivis en consultation; un prélèvement mycologique, avec examen direct et culture, a été réalisé devant toute suspicion clinique de lésion mycosique. Quatre-vingt-deux patients ont été inclus. L'hémoglobine glycosylée moyenne a été de9,2% ± 2,23. Un intertrigo inter orteil a été noté dans 90,2% des cas; l'examen mycologique était positif dans 64,8% des cas, avec 18 cas de Trichophyton rubrum et 11 cas de Candida albicans. Une atteinte unguéale a été suspectée chez 65,9% patients; la culture a mis en évidence un Trichosporon pathogène chez sept patients, un Candida albicansdans six cas, un Trichophyton rubrum dans quatre cas, avec trois cas de Trichophyton mentagrophytes et deux cas de Scytalidium dimidiatum. L’étude analytique, après confirmation mycologique, en fonction des principales caractéristiques des patients a montré que l'atteinte mycosique du pied est significativement corrélée au déséquilibre glycémique. Ce travail a montré la prédominance du Trichophyton rubrum dans les lésions d'intertrigo inter orteil et du Trichosporon dans les onychomycoses, avec une prédominance globale plus globale plus élevée du TR.

Resveratrol promotes foot ulcer size reduction in type 2 diabetes patients

Objective. The effect of a proprietary formulation of trans-resveratrol (t-RSV) on manifestations of diabetic foot syndrome (DFS) was studied in type 2 diabetic patients with newly diagnosed diabetic foot ulcers. Method. Placebo-controlled, examiner-blinded, parallel-group randomized controlled pilot clinical trial (ACTRN Clinical Trial Registry number 12610000629033) involving 24 patients with DFS (15 males and 9 females, average age of 56.4 ± 9.1 years) divided into the placebo and RSV-treatment groups was performed. 50 mg of t-RSV or placebo capsules was given to each patient twice a day over a 60-day time period. Results. Reduction in the parameters reflecting diabetic ulcer size was more profound in the RSV group as compared to placebo. RSV-treated patients also had a marginally improved performance in the foot pressure test. A statistically significant decline in the plasma fibrinogen level, but not CRP, was also found in the RSV-treated patients. Some improvement in the plasma lipid profile and fasting glucose levels were not related to RSV-treatment, since they have been seen on both the RSV and placebo groups, revealing the effectiveness of medical supervision and education in the newly diagnosed patients with DFS. Conclusion. t-RSV supplementation promotes reduction of the foot ulcer size and reduces plasma fibrinogen level in type 2 diabetic patients.

The role of endoplasmic reticulum stress in autoimmune-mediated beta-cell destruction in type 1 diabetes

Unlike type 2 diabetes which is caused by the loss of insulin sensitivity, type 1 diabetes (T1D) is manifested by the absolute deficiency of insulin secretion due to the loss of β mass by autoimmune response against β-cell self-antigens. Although significant advancement has been made in understanding the pathoetiology for type 1 diabetes, the exact mechanisms underlying autoimmune-mediated β-cell destruction, however, are yet to be fully addressed. Accumulated evidence demonstrates that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress plays an essential role in autoimmune-mediated β-cell destruction. There is also evidence supporting that ER stress regulates the functionality of immune cells relevant to autoimmune progression during T1D development. In this paper, we intend to address the role of ER stress in autoimmune-mediated β-cell destruction during the course of type 1 diabetes. The potential implication of ER stress in modulating autoimmune response will be also discussed. We will further dissect the possible pathways implicated in the induction of ER stress and summarize the potential mechanisms underlying ER stress for mediation of β-cell destruction. A better understanding of the role for ER stress in T1D pathoetiology would have great potential aimed at developing effective therapeutic approaches for the prevention/intervention of this devastating disorder.

Plasma thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) antigen levels in diabetic foot ulcers

Plasma TAFI may participate in arterial thrombosis in cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and may be involved in the mechanism of vascular endothelial damage in diabetic patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the association of plasma TAFI antigen level in the development of diabetic foot ulcer in Type 2 diabetes. The TAFI antigen levels were determined in 50 patients with diabetic foot ulcers and 34 patients without diabetic foot ulcers and 25 healthy individuals. We measured TAFIa/ai antigen in plasma samples with a commercially available ELISA Kit. Diabetic foot ulcer group and diabetic group were similar in terms of mean age and sex distribution. Diabetes duration, retinopathy, neuropathy, macrovascular disease and infection were related to diabetic foot ulcers. HbA1c, HDL-cholesterol and Folic Acid levels were decreased in the diabetic foot ulcer group. TAFI levels were 99.44 ± 55.94% in control group, 135.21 ± 61.05% in diabetic foot ulcer group, 136.75 ± 59.38% in diabetic group and was statistically different (P < 0.05). But no difference was seen in TAFI levels between the diabetic foot ulcer group and diabetic group (P > 0.05). No significant difference in plasma TAFI levels were seen between diabetic foot ulcer stages. TAFI antigen levels are increased in Type 2 diabetic patients, but are not related to diabetic foot ulcer development.