Chronic cocaine intoxication alters hippocampal sodium channel function

Conditioned drug reward enhances subsequent spatial learning and memory in rats

RATIONALE

Chronic exposure to drugs of abuse alters neural processes that normally promote learning and memory. A context that is repeatedly paired with reinforcing drugs will acquire secondary reinforcing properties (conditioned reward). However, the effects of conditioned reward on spatial learning are unknown.

OBJECTIVE

Using the conditioned place preference procedure and Morris water maze task, we examined the role of conditioned reward or aversion in spatial learning.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Groups of rats acquired morphine (10 mg/kg), cocaine (10 mg/kg), or oral sucrose (15%) conditioned place preference (CPP). Another group of morphine-dependent rats acquired conditioned place aversion (CPA) to a context paired with precipitated opiate withdrawal induced by naloxone injections (1 mg/kg). To examine the role of conditioned reward or aversion in spatial learning, rats were then exposed to the previously morphine-, cocaine-, sucrose- or naloxone-paired context for 10 min before training of spatial learning in the Morris water maze.

RESULTS

Exposure to the morphine- or cocaine-paired but not the sucrose- or the naloxone-paired context decreased the latency to find the platform in the Morris water maze test.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide the first evidence that conditioned drug reward promotes spatial learning. We speculate that this enhancement of spatial learning by the drug-paired context may promote contextual-cue-induced relapse to drug taking by facilitating exploratory drug-seeking behaviors.

Up-regulation of GABA(B) receptor mRNA and protein in the hippocampus of cocaine- and lidocaine-kindled rats

To evaluate the effect of GABA(B) receptor in drug-kindled seizures, the gene expression of GABA(B) receptor in cocaine- and lidocaine-kindled rats was examined in this study. Rats were injected (i.p.) daily with cocaine (55 mg/kg) or lidocaine (65 mg/kg) until they experienced a motor seizure (kindling). After kindling, rats received a 1-day, 10-day, or 30-day drug washout period. The rats in the 1-day washout group were killed after the washout. Those in the 10-day and 30-day groups were challenged either with drug or saline, and killed 24 h later. Control rats were injected and challenged with saline. GABA(B)R1a, 1b and R2 mRNAs in discrete regions of brain were detected by in situ hybridization; GABA(B)R1a protein level was measured by Western blotting. Ninety percent of the cocaine-treated rats and 100% of the lidocaine-treated rats were kindled by day 12. Those rats responded to the challenge cocaine or lidocaine with a motor seizure after the 10-day and 30-day washout. GABA(B) receptor mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus were significantly increased after the 1-day and 10-day washout, but not the 30-day washout. In addition, the levels in drug-treated and drug-challenged rats were significantly greater than those in drug-treated and saline-challenged rats after the 10-day washout. Those data suggest that changes of GABA(B) receptor gene expression could be a factor underlying the development of drug-kindled seizure, but not a necessary component for the maintenance of this phenomenon.

Voltage-gated sodium channels in epilepsy

Animal experiments, and particularly functional investigations on human chronically epileptic tissue as well as genetic studies in epilepsy patients and their families strongly suggest that some forms of epilepsy may share a pathogenetic mechanism: an alteration of voltage-gated sodium channels. This review summarizes recent data on changes of sodium channel expression, molecular structure and function associated with epilepsy, as well as on the interaction of new and established antiepileptic drugs with sodium currents. Although it remains to be determined precisely how and to what extent altered sodium-channel functions play a role in different epilepsy syndromes, future promising therapy approaches may include drugs modulating sodium currents, and particularly substances changing their inactivation characteristics.

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide modulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ signaling in hippocampal neurons

Administration of cocaine and amphetamine increases cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) expression in the rat striatum (Douglass et al., 1995). CART mRNA is highly expressed in different parts of the human and rat brain, including hippocampus (Douglass et al., 1995; Couceyro et al., 1997; Kuhar and Yoho, 1999; Hurd and Fagergren, 2000). The presence of CART peptide 55-102 immunoreactivity in dense core vesicles of axon terminals suggests that the peptide may be released and may act as a neuromodulator (Smith et al., 1997) to induce neurophysiological and behavioral effects. Little is known, however, about CART peptide-responsive cells, receptor(s), or intracellular signaling mechanisms that mediate CART peptide action. Here we show that CART peptide 55-102 inhibits voltage-dependent intracellular Ca(2+) signaling and attenuates cocaine enhancement of depolarization-induced Ca(2+) influx in rat hippocampal neurons. The inhibitory effect of CART peptide 55-102 on Ca(2+) signaling is likely mediated by an inhibition of L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel activity via a G-protein-dependent pathway. These results indicate that voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels in hippocampal neurons are targets for CART peptide 55-102 and suggest that CART peptides may be important in physiology and behavior mediated by the hippocampus, such as certain forms of learning and memory.

Long-term changes in connexin32 gap junction protein and mRNA expression following cocaine self-administration in rats

Considerable evidence indicates a critical role for dopamine in the reinforcing effects of cocaine. Because dopamine has been shown to be a critical modulator of gap junction communication in both eye and brain, we sought to examine whether extended intravenous cocaine self-administration would affect the expression of gap junction channel-forming proteins (connexins). Using ELISA, Western analysis, immunohistochemistry, semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and non-radioactive in situ hybridization, we demonstrate that withdrawal from chronic cocaine self-administration causes lasting changes in connexin32 (Cx32) expression in the nucleus accumbens and hippocampus at 2, 7 and 21 days after the last cocaine injection. A sustained decrease in Cx32 protein and mRNA levels is noted in areas that have been implicated in cocaine craving (i.e. nucleus accumbens and subfields of the hippocampal formation). A progressive increase in gap junction protein and mRNA expression is noted in areas that become hyperexcitable after chronic cocaine exposure (i.e. CA1 hippocampal neurons). We speculate that gap junction communication may be critically involved in reinforcement processes and neuroadaptive changes produced by drugs of abuse.

Depressive symptomatology and cocaine-induced pituitary-adrenal axis activation in individuals with cocaine dependence

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a role in cocaine dependence and major depressive disorder. The authors examined the correlation between baseline depressive symptomatology and pituitary-adrenal axis activation induced by acute cocaine challenge. Twelve patients with cocaine dependence were administered an iv bolus of cocaine (0.6 mg/kg) and their plasma was assayed for levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol. Depressive symptomatology was assessed with total Hamilton rating scale for depression (HRSD) scores and its vegetative and cognitive superfactors. Cocaine produced a mean increase from baseline of 261% for ACTH and 73% for cortisol plasma levels. Changes in ACTH (r=0.69) and cortisol (r=0.59) were positively and significantly correlated with total HRSD scores and its vegetative, but not cognitive, factor symptom cluster. These results suggest that the HPA axis may be involved in affective disturbances associated with the use of cocaine. Implications of these data for the pathophysiology of cocaine dependence are discussed.