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Fitzpatrick LLJ, Nijman V, Ligabue-Braun R, Nekaris KAI. The Fast and the Furriest: Investigating the Rate of Selection on Mammalian Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120842. [PMID: 36548740 PMCID: PMC9782207 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of venom and the selection pressures that act on toxins have been increasingly researched within toxinology in the last two decades, in part due to the exceptionally high rates of diversifying selection observed in animal toxins. In 2015, Sungar and Moran proposed the 'two-speed' model of toxin evolution linking evolutionary age of a group to the rates of selection acting on toxins but due to a lack of data, mammals were not included as less than 30 species of venomous mammal have been recorded, represented by elusive species which produce small amounts of venom. Due to advances in genomics and transcriptomics, the availability of toxin sequences from venomous mammals has been increasing. Using branch- and site-specific selection models, we present the rates of both episodic and pervasive selection acting upon venomous mammal toxins as a group for the first time. We identified seven toxin groups present within venomous mammals, representing Chiroptera, Eulipotyphla and Monotremata: KLK1, Plasminogen Activator, Desmallipins, PACAP, CRiSP, Kunitz Domain One and Kunitz Domain Two. All but one group (KLK1) was identified by our results to be evolving under both episodic and pervasive diversifying selection with four toxin groups having sites that were implicated in the fitness of the animal by TreeSAAP (Selection on Amino Acid Properties). Our results suggest that venomous mammal ecology, behaviour or genomic evolution are the main drivers of selection, although evolutionary age may still be a factor. Our conclusion from these results indicates that mammalian toxins are following the two-speed model of selection, evolving predominately under diversifying selection, fitting in with other younger venomous taxa like snakes and cone snails-with high amounts of accumulating mutations, leading to more novel adaptions in their toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Lucy Joscelyne Fitzpatrick
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Vincent Nijman
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Department of Pharmacosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Avenida Sarmento Leite 245, Porto Alegre 90050-130, Brazil
| | - K. Anne-Isola Nekaris
- Nocturnal Primate Research Group, Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
- Centre for Functional Genomics, Department of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
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Fu Z, Akula S, Olsson AK, Kervinen J, Hellman L. Mast Cells and Basophils in the Defense against Ectoparasites: Efficient Degradation of Parasite Anticoagulants by the Connective Tissue Mast Cell Chymases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222312627. [PMID: 34884431 PMCID: PMC8657707 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222312627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks, lice, flees, mosquitos, leeches and vampire bats need to prevent the host's blood coagulation during their feeding process. This is primarily achieved by injecting potent anticoagulant proteins. Basophils frequently accumulate at the site of tick feeding. However, this occurs only after the second encounter with the parasite involving an adaptive immune response and IgE. To study the potential role of basophils and mast cells in the defense against ticks and other ectoparasites, we produced anticoagulant proteins from three blood-feeding animals; tick, mosquito, and leech. We tested these anticoagulant proteins for their sensitivity to inactivation by a panel of hematopoietic serine proteases. The majority of the connective tissue mast cell proteases tested, originating from humans, dogs, rats, hamsters, and opossums, efficiently cleaved these anticoagulant proteins. Interestingly, the mucosal mast cell proteases that contain closely similar cleavage specificity, had little effect on these anticoagulant proteins. Ticks have been shown to produce serpins, serine protease inhibitors, upon a blood meal that efficiently inhibit the human mast cell chymase and cathepsin G, indicating that ticks have developed a strategy to inactivate these proteases. We show here that one of these tick serpins (IRS-2) shows broad activity against the majority of the mast cell chymotryptic enzymes and the neutrophil proteases from human to opossum. However, it had no effect on the mast cell tryptases or the basophil specific protease mMCP-8. The production of anticoagulants, proteases and anti-proteases by the parasite and the host presents a fascinating example of an arms race between the blood-feeding animals and the mammalian immune system with an apparent and potent role of the connective tissue mast cell chymases in the host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhirong Fu
- The Biomedical Center, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden; (Z.F.); (S.A.)
| | - Srinivas Akula
- The Biomedical Center, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden; (Z.F.); (S.A.)
| | - Anna-Karin Olsson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, BMC, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | - Jukka Kervinen
- Tosoh Bioscience LLC., 3604 Horizon Drive, King of Prussia, PA 19406, USA;
| | - Lars Hellman
- The Biomedical Center, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden; (Z.F.); (S.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +46-(0)18-471-4532; Fax: +46-(0)18-471-4862
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Delpietro HA, Russo RG, Rupprecht CE, Delpietro GL. Towards Development of an Anti-Vampire Bat Vaccine for Rabies Management: Inoculation of Vampire Bat Saliva Induces Immune-Mediated Resistance. Viruses 2021; 13:515. [PMID: 33804644 PMCID: PMC8003692 DOI: 10.3390/v13030515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) is a hematophagous species responsible for paralytic rabies and bite damage that affects livestock, humans and wildlife from Mexico to Argentina. Current measures to control vampires, based upon coumarin-derived poisons, are not used extensively due in part to the high cost of application, risks for bats that share roosts with vampires and residual environmental contamination. Observations that vampire bat bites may induce resistance in livestock against vampire bat salivary anticoagulants encourage research into novel vaccine-based alternatives particularly focused upon increasing livestock resistance to vampire salivary components. We evaluated the action of vampire bat saliva-Freund's incomplete adjuvant administered to sheep with anticoagulant responses induced by repeated vampire bites in a control group and examined characteristics of vampire bat salivary secretion. We observed that injections induced a response against vampire bat salivary anticoagulants stronger than by repeated vampire bat bites. Based upon these preliminary findings, we hypothesize the utility of developing a control technique based on induction of an immunologically mediated resistance against vampire bat anticoagulants and rabies virus via dual delivery of appropriate host and pathogen antigens. Fundamental characteristics of host biology favor alternative strategies than simple culling by poisons for practical, economical, and ecologically relevant management of vampire populations within a One Health context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Horacio A. Delpietro
- Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (SENASA), Padre Serrano 1116, 3300 Posadas, Argentina; (R.G.R.); (G.L.D.)
| | - Roberto G. Russo
- Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (SENASA), Padre Serrano 1116, 3300 Posadas, Argentina; (R.G.R.); (G.L.D.)
| | | | - Gabriela L. Delpietro
- Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad Agroalimentaria (SENASA), Padre Serrano 1116, 3300 Posadas, Argentina; (R.G.R.); (G.L.D.)
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Orlando SA, Panchana VF, Calderón JL, Muñoz OS, Campos DN, Torres-Lasso PR, Arcos FJ, Quentin E. Risk Factors Associated with Attacks of Hematophagous Bats (Desmodus rotundus) on Cattle in Ecuador. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2019; 19:407-413. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2017.2247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Solón A. Orlando
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública (INSPI), Guayaquil, Ecuador
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Agraria del Ecuador, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Vanessa F. Panchana
- Agencia Ecuatoriana de Aseguramiento de la Calidad del Agro (AGROCALIDAD), Santa Elena, Ecuador
| | - Joselyn L. Calderón
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública (INSPI), Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Olga S. Muñoz
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública (INSPI), Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Dédime N. Campos
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Agraria del Ecuador, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Pablo R. Torres-Lasso
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Fabrizio J. Arcos
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Agraria del Ecuador, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - Emmanuelle Quentin
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública (INSPI), Guayaquil, Ecuador
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Kakumanu R, Hodgson WC, Ravi R, Alagon A, Harris RJ, Brust A, Alewood PF, Kemp-Harper BK, Fry BG. Vampire Venom: Vasodilatory Mechanisms of Vampire Bat ( Desmodus rotundus) Blood Feeding. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11010026. [PMID: 30626071 PMCID: PMC6356263 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals that specialise in blood feeding have particular challenges in obtaining their meal, whereby they impair blood hemostasis by promoting anticoagulation and vasodilation in order to facilitate feeding. These convergent selection pressures have been studied in a number of lineages, ranging from fleas to leeches. However, the vampire bat (Desmondus rotundus) is unstudied in regards to potential vasodilatory mechanisms of their feeding secretions (which are a type of venom). This is despite the intense investigations of their anticoagulant properties which have demonstrated that D. rotundus venom contains strong anticoagulant and proteolytic activities which delay the formation of blood clots and interfere with the blood coagulation cascade. In this study, we identified and tested a compound from D. rotundus venom that is similar in size and amino acid sequence to human calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) which has potent vasodilatory properties. We found that the vampire bat-derived form of CGRP (i.e., vCGRP) selectively caused endothelium-independent relaxation of pre-contracted rat small mesenteric arteries. The vasorelaxant efficacy and potency of vCGRP were similar to that of CGRP, in activating CGRP receptors and Kv channels to relax arteriole smooth muscle, which would facilitate blood meal feeding by promoting continual blood flow. Our results provide, for the first time, a detailed investigation into the identification and function of a vasodilatory peptide found in D. rotundus venom, which provides a basis in understanding the convergent pathways and selectivity of hematophagous venoms. These unique peptides also show excellent drug design and development potential, thus highlighting the social and economic value of venomous animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahini Kakumanu
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Ravina Ravi
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Alejandro Alagon
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico.
| | - Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia.
| | - Andreas Brust
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Paul F Alewood
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Barbara K Kemp-Harper
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing & Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia.
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Peter AK, Crocini C, Leinwand LA. Expanding our scientific horizons: utilization of unique model organisms in biological research. EMBO J 2017; 36:2311-2314. [PMID: 28694243 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201797640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Angela K Peter
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Claudia Crocini
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Leslie A Leinwand
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca L. Ware
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, Leicester LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Martin R. Luck
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, Leicester LE12 5RD, UK
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Low DHW, Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Ali SA, Alagon AC, Ruder T, Jackson TNW, Pineda Gonzalez S, King GF, Jones A, Antunes A, Fry BG. Dracula's children: molecular evolution of vampire bat venom. J Proteomics 2013; 89:95-111. [PMID: 23748026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2013.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED While vampire bat oral secretions have been the subject of intense research, efforts have concentrated only on two components: DSPA (Desmodus rotundus salivary plasminogen activator) and Draculin. The molecular evolutionary history of DSPA has been elucidated, while conversely draculin has long been known from only a very small fragment and thus even the basic protein class was not even established. Despite the fact that vampire bat venom has a multitude of effects unaccounted by the documented bioactivities of DSPA and draculin, efforts have not been made to establish what other bioactive proteins are secreted by their submaxillary gland. In addition, it has remained unclear whether the anatomically distinct anterior and posterior lobes of the submaxillary gland are evolving on separate gene expression trajectories or if they remain under the shared genetic control. Using a combined proteomic and transcriptomic approach, we show that identical proteins are simultaneously expressed in both lobes. In addition to recovering the known structural classes of DSPA, we recovered a novel DSPA isoform as well as obtained a very large sequence stretch of draculin and thus established that it is a mutated version of the lactotransferrin scaffold. This study reveals a much more complex secretion profile than previously recognised. In addition to obtaining novel versions of scaffolds convergently recruited into other venoms (allergen-like, CRiSP, kallikrein, Kunitz, lysozyme), we also documented novel expression of small peptides related to calcitonin, PACAP, and statherin. Other overexpressed protein types included BPI-fold, lacritin, and secretoglobin. Further, we investigate the molecular evolution of various vampire bat venom-components and highlight the dominant role of positive selection in the evolution of these proteins. Conspicuously many of the proteins identified in the proteome were found to be homologous to proteins with known activities affecting vasodilation and platelet aggregation. We show that vampire bat venom proteins possibly evade host immune response by the mutation of the surface chemistry through focal mutagenesis under the guidance of positive Darwinian selection. These results not only contribute to the body of knowledge regarding haematophagous venoms but also provide a rich resource for novel lead compounds for use in drug design and development. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results have direct implications in understanding the molecular evolutionary history of vampire bat venom. The unusual peptides discovered reinforce the value of studying such neglected taxon for biodiscovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dolyce H W Low
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
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Ligabue-Braun R, Verli H, Carlini CR. Venomous mammals: a review. Toxicon 2012; 59:680-95. [PMID: 22410495 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Revised: 01/19/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of venom in mammals has long been considered of minor importance, but recent fossil discoveries and advances in experimental techniques have cast new light into this subject. Mammalian venoms form a heterogeneous group having different compositions and modes of action and are present in three classes of mammals, Insectivora, Monotremata, and Chiroptera. A fourth order, Primates, is proposed to have venomous representatives. In this review we highlight recent advances in the field while summarizing biochemical characteristics of these secretions and their effects upon humans and other animals. Historical aspects of venom discovery and evolutionary hypothesis regarding their origin are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Graduate Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center of Biotechnology, Department of Biophysics-IB, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Delpietro HA, Russo RG. Acquired Resistance to Saliva Anticoagulants by Prey Previously Fed upon by Vampire Bats (Desmodus rotundus): Evidence for Immune Response. J Mammal 2009. [DOI: 10.1644/07-mamm-a-374.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Fernandez AZ, Tablante A, Beguín S, Hemker HC, Apitz-Castro R. Draculin, the anticoagulant factor in vampire bat saliva, is a tight-binding, noncompetitive inhibitor of activated factor X. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1999; 1434:135-42. [PMID: 10556567 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4838(99)00160-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The kinetic mechanism of action of Draculin on activated Factor X (FXa) is established. Draculin inhibits activated Factor X within seconds of incubation at near equimolar concentration (2-6 times on molar basis). Fitting the data to the equation for a tight-binding inhibitor gives a value for K(i)(K(d)) = 14.8+/-1.5 nM. The formation of the Draculin-FXa complex can be explained by a two-step mechanism, where for the first, reversible step, k(on) = 1.117 (+/- 0.169, S.E.M.) x 10(6) M(-1)s(-1) and k(off) = 15.388 (+/- 1.672) x 10(-3) s(-1), while for the second, irreversible step, which is concentration-independent, k(2) = 0.072 s(-1). K(d) obtained from k(off)/k(on) = 13.76 nM. Lineweaver-Burk plot shows a noncompetitive behavior. This noncompetitive mode of inhibition of Draculin is supported by the observation that Draculin, at concentrations giving complete inhibition, does not impair binding of p-aminobenzamidine to FXa. Moreover, under the same conditions, Draculin induces <14% decrease of the fluorescence intensity of the p-aminobenzamidine-FXa complex. We conclude that Draculin is a noncompetitive, tight-binding inhibitor of FXa, a characteristic so far unique amongst natural FXa inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Z Fernandez
- Lab. Trombosis Experimental, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, IVIC, Ap. 21827, Caracas, Venezuela
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