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Absence of Stress Response in Dorsal Raphe Nucleus in Modulator of Apoptosis 1-Deficient Mice. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:2185-2201. [PMID: 30003515 PMCID: PMC6394635 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1205-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Modulator of apoptosis 1 (MOAP-1) is a Bcl-2-associated X Protein (BAX)-associating protein that plays an important role in regulating apoptosis. It is highly enriched in the brain but its function in this organ remains unknown. Studies on BAX-/- mice suggested that disruption of programmed cell death may lead to abnormal emotional states. We thus hypothesize that MOAP-1-/- mice may also display stress-related behavioral differences and perhaps involved in stress responses in the brain and investigated if a depression-like trait exists in MOAP-1-/- mice, and if so, whether it is age related, and how it relates to central serotonergic stress response in the dorsal raphe nucleus. Young MOAP-1-/- mice exhibit depression-like behavior, in the form of increased immobility time when compared to age-matched wild-type mice in the forced swimming test, which is abolished by acute treatment of fluoxetine. This is supported by data from the tail suspension and sucrose preference tests. Repeated forced swimming stress causes an up-regulation of tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) and a down-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) in young wild-type (WT) control mice. In contrast, TPH2 up-regulation was not observed in aged WT mice. Interestingly, such a stress response appears absent in both young and aged MOAP-1-/- mice. Aged MOAP-1-/- and WT mice also have similar immobility times on the forced swimming test. These data suggest that MOAP-1 is required in the regulation of stress response in the DRN. Crosstalk between BDNF and 5-HT appears to play an important role in this stress response.
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Beyer DKE, Freund N. Animal models for bipolar disorder: from bedside to the cage. Int J Bipolar Disord 2017; 5:35. [PMID: 29027157 PMCID: PMC5638767 DOI: 10.1186/s40345-017-0104-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Bipolar disorder is characterized by recurrent manic and depressive episodes. Patients suffering from this disorder experience dramatic mood swings with a wide variety of typical behavioral facets, affecting overall activity, energy, sexual behavior, sense of self, self-esteem, circadian rhythm, cognition, and increased risk for suicide. Effective treatment options are limited and diagnosis can be complicated. To overcome these obstacles, a better understanding of the neurobiology underlying bipolar disorder is needed. Animal models can be useful tools in understanding brain mechanisms associated with certain behavior. The following review discusses several pathological aspects of humans suffering from bipolar disorder and compares these findings with insights obtained from several animal models mimicking diverse facets of its symptomatology. Various sections of the review concentrate on specific topics that are relevant in human patients, namely circadian rhythms, neurotransmitters, focusing on the dopaminergic system, stressful environment, and the immune system. We then explain how these areas have been manipulated to create animal models for the disorder. Even though several approaches have been conducted, there is still a lack of adequate animal models for bipolar disorder. Specifically, most animal models mimic only mania or depression and only a few include the cyclical nature of the human condition. Future studies could therefore focus on modeling both episodes in the same animal model to also have the possibility to investigate the switch from mania-like behavior to depressive-like behavior and vice versa. The use of viral tools and a focus on circadian rhythms and the immune system might make the creation of such animal models possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik K. E. Beyer
- Experimental and Molecular Psychiatry, LWL University Hospital, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Nadja Freund
- Experimental and Molecular Psychiatry, LWL University Hospital, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany
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Krahe TE, Medina AE, Lantz CL, Filgueiras CC. Hyperactivity and depression-like traits in Bax KO mice. Brain Res 2015; 1625:246-54. [PMID: 26363094 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The Bax gene is a member of the Bcl-2 gene family and its pro-apoptotic Bcl-associated X (Bax) protein is believed to be crucial in regulating apoptosis during neuronal development as well as following injury. With the advent of mouse genomics, mice lacking the pro-apoptotic Bax gene (Bax KO) have been extensively used to study how cell death helps to determine synaptic circuitry formation during neurodevelopment and disease. Surprisingly, in spite of its wide use and the association of programmed neuronal death with motor dysfunctions and depression, the effects of Bax deletion on mice spontaneous locomotor activity and depression-like traits are unknown. Here we examine the behavioral characteristics of Bax KO male mice using classical paradigms to evaluate spontaneous locomotor activity and depressive-like responses. In the open field, Bax KO animals exhibited greater locomotor activity than their control littermates. In the forced swimming test, Bax KO mice displayed greater immobility times, a behavior despair state, when compared to controls. Collectively, our findings corroborate the notion that a fine balance between cell survival and death early during development is critical for normal brain function later in life. Furthermore, it points out the importance of considering depressive-like and hyperactivity behavioral phenotypes when conducting neurodevelopmental and other studies using the Bax KO strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Krahe
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, IBRAG, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center, Richmond, USA
| | | | - Crystal L Lantz
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, USA
| | - Cláudio C Filgueiras
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, IBRAG, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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Li Y, Wang GD, Wang MS, Irwin DM, Wu DD, Zhang YP. Domestication of the dog from the wolf was promoted by enhanced excitatory synaptic plasticity: a hypothesis. Genome Biol Evol 2014; 6:3115-21. [PMID: 25377939 PMCID: PMC4255776 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evu245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Dogs shared a much closer relationship with humans than any other domesticated animals, probably due to their unique social cognitive capabilities, which were hypothesized to be a by-product of selection for tameness toward humans. Here, we demonstrate that genes involved in glutamate metabolism, which account partially for fear response, indeed show the greatest population differentiation by whole-genome comparison of dogs and wolves. However, the changing direction of their expression supports a role in increasing excitatory synaptic plasticity in dogs rather than reducing fear response. Because synaptic plasticity are widely believed to be cellular correlates of learning and memory, this change may alter the learning and memory abilities of ancient scavenging wolves, weaken the fear reaction toward humans, and prompt the initial interspecific contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Yunnan Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Domestic Animals, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Guo-Dong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Yunnan Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Domestic Animals, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Ming-Shan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Yunnan Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Domestic Animals, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - David M Irwin
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Yunnan Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Domestic Animals, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada Banting and Best Diabetes Centre, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dong-Dong Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Yunnan Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Domestic Animals, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Ya-Ping Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Yunnan Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Domestic Animals, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
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Mature Purkinje cells require the retinoic acid-related orphan receptor-α (RORα) to maintain climbing fiber mono-innervation and other adult characteristics. J Neurosci 2013; 33:9546-62. [PMID: 23719821 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2977-12.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal maturation during development is a multistep process regulated by transcription factors. The transcription factor RORα (retinoic acid-related orphan receptor α) is necessary for early Purkinje cell (PC) maturation but is also expressed throughout adulthood. To identify the role of RORα in mature PCs, we used Cre-lox mouse genetic tools in vivo that delete it specifically from PCs between postnatal days 10-21. Up to 14 d of age, differences between mutant and control PCs were not detectable: both were mono-innervated by climbing fibers (CFs) extending along their well-developed dendrites with spiny branchlets. By week 4, mutant mice were ataxic, some PCs had died, and remaining PC soma and dendrites were atrophic, with almost complete disappearance of spiny branchlets. The innervation pattern of surviving RORα-deleted PCs was abnormal with several immature characteristics. Notably, multiple functional CF innervation was reestablished on these mature PCs, simultaneously with the relocation of CF contacts to the PC soma and their stem dendrite. This morphological modification of CF contacts could be induced even later, using lentivirus-mediated depletion of rora from adult PCs. These data show that the late postnatal expression of RORα cell-autonomously regulates the maintenance of PC dendritic complexity, and the CF innervation status of the PC (dendritic vs somatic contacts, and mono-innervation vs multi-innervation). Thus, the differentiation state of adult neurons is under the control of transcription factors; and in their absence, adult neurons lose their mature characteristics and acquire some characteristics of an earlier developmental stage.
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Dexamethasone induces apoptosis in the developing rat amygdala in an age-, region-, and sex-specific manner. Neuroscience 2011; 199:535-47. [PMID: 22008524 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.09.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2011] [Revised: 09/18/2011] [Accepted: 09/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to glucocorticoids (GCs) in early development can lead to long-term changes in brain function and behavior, although little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms. Perinatal exposure to GCs alters adult anxiety and neuroendocrine responses to stress. Therefore, we investigated the effects of either late gestational or neonatal exposure to the GC receptor agonist dexamethasone (DEX), on apoptosis within the amygdala, a region critical for emotional regulation. DEX was administered to timed-pregnant rat dams from gestational day 18 until parturition, or postnatal day 4-6. Offspring were sacrificed the day following the last DEX treatment, and tissue was processed for immunohistochemical detection of cleaved caspase-3, a marker for apoptotic cells. Prenatal DEX treatment significantly increased the number of cleaved caspase-3-positive cells in the amygdala of both sexes, largely due to increases within the medial and basomedial subregions. Postnatal DEX treatment also increased cleaved caspase-3 immunoreactivity within the amygdala, although effects reached significance only in the central nucleus of females. Overall, DEX induction of cleaved caspase-3 in the amygdala was greater following prenatal compared with postnatal treatment, yet in both instances, elevations in cleaved caspase-3 correlated with an increase in pro-apoptotic Bax mRNA expression. Dual-label immunohistochemistry of cleaved caspase-3 and the neuronal marker NeuN confirmed that virtually all cleaved caspase-3-positive cells in the amygdala were neurons, and a subset of these cells (primarily following postnatal treatment) expressed a GABAergic calcium-binding protein phenotype (calbindin or calretinin). Together these results indicate that early developmental GC exposure induces neuronal apoptosis within the amygdala in an age-, sex-, and region-dependent manner.
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Fouquet C, Petit GH, Auffret A, Gaillard E, Rovira C, Mariani J, Rondi-Reig L. Early detection of age-related memory deficits in individual mice. Neurobiol Aging 2009; 32:1881-95. [PMID: 20004498 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2009] [Revised: 10/23/2009] [Accepted: 11/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To date, no consensus has been reached concerning the age of the earliest onset of age-related cognitive deficits in rodents. Our aim was to develop a behavioral model allowing early and individual detection of age-related cognitive impairments. We tested young (3 months), middle-aged (10 months) and aged (17 months) C57Bl/6 mice in the starmaze, a task allowing precise analysis of the search pattern of mice via standardized calculation of two navigation indices. We performed mouse-per-mouse analyses and compared each mouse's performance to a threshold based on young mice's performances. Using this method we identified impaired mice from the age of 10 months old. Their deficits were independent of any sensorimotor dysfunctions and were associated with an alteration of the maintenance of the hippocampal CA1 late-LTP. This study develops reliable methodology for early detection of age-related memory disorders and provides evidence that memory can decline in some individuals as early as from the age of 10 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Fouquet
- ENMVI team, UMR CNRS 7102, Université P&M Curie, F-75005 Paris, France
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Schloesser RJ, Chen G, Manji HK. Neurogenesis and Neuroenhancement in the Pathophysiology and Treatment of Bipolar Disorder. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2007; 77:143-78. [PMID: 17178474 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(06)77005-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Schloesser
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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de Rivero Vaccari JC, Casey GP, Aleem S, Park WM, Corriveau RA. NMDA receptors promote survival in somatosensory relay nuclei by inhibiting Bax-dependent developmental cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:16971-6. [PMID: 17077143 PMCID: PMC1636563 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0608068103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Naturally occurring cell death is a universal feature of developing nervous systems that plays an essential role in determining adult brain function. Yet little is known about the decisions that select a subset of CNS neurons for survival and cause others to die. We report that postnatal day 0 NMDA receptor subunit 1 (NMDAR1) knockout mice display an approximately 2-fold increase in cell death in the brainstem trigeminal complex (BSTC), including all four nuclei that receive somatosensory inputs from the face (principalis, oralis, interpolaris, and caudalis). Treatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist dizocilpine maleate (MK-801) for 24 h before birth also caused an increase in cell death that reached statistical significance in two of the four nuclei (oralis and interpolaris). The neonatal sensitivity to NMDA receptor hypofunction in the BSTC, and in its main thalamic target, the ventrobasal nucleus (VB), coincides with the peak of naturally occurring cell death and trigeminothalamic synaptogenesis. At embryonic day 17.5, before the onset of these events, NMDAR1 knockout does not affect cell survival in either the BSTC or the VB. Immunostaining for active caspase-3 and the neuronal marker Hu specifically confirms the presence of dying neurons in the BSTC and the VB of NMDAR1 knockout neonates. Finally, genetic deletion of Bax rescues these structures from the requirement for NMDA receptors to limit naturally occurring cell death. Taken together, the results indicate that NMDA receptors play a survival role for somatosensory relay neurons during synaptogenesis by inhibiting Bax-dependent developmental cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory P. Casey
- *Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Salman Aleem
- *Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Won-Mee Park
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118; and
| | - Roderick A. Corriveau
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614
- To whom correspondence should be sent at the present address:
Coriell Institute for Medical Research, 403 Haddon Avenue, Camden, NJ 08103. E-mail:
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Han M, Schottler F, Lei D, Dong EY, Bryan A, Bao J. Bcl-2 over-expression fails to prevent age-related loss of calretinin positive neurons in the mouse dentate gyrus. Mol Neurodegener 2006; 1:9. [PMID: 16930456 PMCID: PMC1569830 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-1-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2006] [Accepted: 08/22/2006] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cognitive performance declines with increasing age. Possible cellular mechanisms underlying this age-related functional decline remain incompletely understood. Early studies attributed this functional decline to age-related neuronal loss. Subsequent studies using unbiased stereological techniques found little or no neuronal loss during aging. However, studies using specific cellular markers found age-related loss of specific neuronal types. To test whether there is age-related loss of specific neuronal populations in the hippocampus, and subsequently, whether over-expression of the B-cell lymphoma protein-2 (Bcl-2) in these neurons could delay possible age-related neuronal loss, we examined calretinin (CR) positive neurons in the mouse dentate gyrus during aging. RESULT In normal mice, there was an age-related loss of CR positive cells in the dentate gyrus. At the same region, there was no significant decrease of total numbers of neurons, which suggested that age-related loss of CR positive cells was due to the decrease of CR expression in these cells instead of cell death. In the transgenic mouse line over-expressing Bcl-2 in neurons, there was an age-related loss of CR positive cells. Interestingly, there was also an age-related neuronal loss in this transgenic mouse line. CONCLUSION These data suggest an age-related loss of CR positive neurons but not total neuronal loss in normal mice and this age-related neuronal change is not prevented by Bcl-2 over-expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingbo Han
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Frank Schottler
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Debin Lei
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Elizabeth Y Dong
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Alexander Bryan
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jianxin Bao
- Department of Otolaryngology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Center for Aging, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Abstract
The programmed cell death (PCD) of developing cells is considered an essential adaptive process that evolved to serve diverse roles. We review the putative adaptive functions of PCD in the animal kingdom with a major focus on PCD in the developing nervous system. Considerable evidence is consistent with the role of PCD in events ranging from neurulation and synaptogenesis to the elimination of adult-generated CNS cells. The remarkable recent progress in our understanding of the genetic regulation of PCD has made it possible to perturb (inhibit) PCD and determine the possible repercussions for nervous system development and function. Although still in their infancy, these studies have so far revealed few striking behavioral or functional phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Buss
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157, USA.
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Einat H, Manji HK. Cellular plasticity cascades: genes-to-behavior pathways in animal models of bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 59:1160-71. [PMID: 16457783 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2005] [Revised: 11/11/2005] [Accepted: 11/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite extensive research, the molecular/cellular underpinnings of bipolar disorder (BD) remain to be fully elucidated. Recent data has demonstrated that mood stabilizers exert major effects on signaling that regulate cellular plasticity; however, a direct extrapolation to mechanisms of disease demands proof that manipulation of candidate genes, proteins, or pathways result in relevant behavioral changes. METHODS We critique and evaluate the behavioral changes induced by manipulation of cellular plasticity cascades implicated in BD. RESULTS Not surprisingly, the behavioral data suggest that several important signaling molecules might play important roles in mediating facets of the complex symptomatology of BD. Notably, the protein kinase C and extracellular signal-regulated kinase cascades might play important roles in the antimanic effects of mood stabilizers, whereas glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3 might mediate facets of lithium's antimanic/antidepressant actions. Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) modulation also seems to be capable to inducing affective-like changes observed in mood disorders. And Bcl-2, amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptors, and inositol homeostasis represent important pharmacological targets for mood stabilizers, but additional behavioral research is needed to more fully delineate their behavioral effects. CONCLUSIONS Behavioral data support the notion that regulation of cellular plasticity is involved in affective-like behavioral changes observed in BD. These findings are leading to the development of novel therapeutics for this devastating illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haim Einat
- College of Pharmacy, Duluth, University of Minnesota, 55812, USA.
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Abstract
The consequences of eliminating the process of programmed cell death during the development of the nervous system is examined by reviewing studies in the genetic model organisms Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, Danio rerio and Mus musculus, where mutations of cell death genes have eliminated or reduced programmed cell death in the nervous system. In many cases, genetic elimination of cell death leads to embryonic mortality or gross anatomical malformations; however, there are cases where animals develop normally but with excess neurons and glia in the nervous system. Undead cells either differentiate and function as working neurons, in some instances being of smaller size, or fail to differentiate and lack normal connections with their targets. Changes in motor control and sensory processing are generally not observed, except for during the most complex of behaviors. Examination of organisms where death genes have been genetically eliminated reveals that programmed cell death may play an important role in sculpting gross brain structure during early development of the neural tube. In contrast, the consequences of preventing neuronal cell death at later developmental stages (e.g. during vertebrate synapse formation) are just beginning to be understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R Buss
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy and the Neuroscience Program, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157-1010, USA
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Kim WK, Mirkes PE. Alterations in mitochondrial morphology are associated with hyperthermia-induced apoptosis in early postimplantation mouse embryos. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 67:929-40. [PMID: 14745931 DOI: 10.1002/bdra.10102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previously, we showed that teratogens such as hyperthermia activate the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway in day nine mouse embryos. Activation of this pathway involves an initial release of cytochrome c from intermembranous spaces of the mitochondria into the cytoplasm. Cytoplasmic cytochrome c then activates a caspase cascade resulting in the orderly demise of the cell. In addition, we showed that teratogens activate the mitochondrial pathway in cells of the neuroepithelium, but not the heart. METHODS To further investigate the role of the mitochondrion in teratogen-induced apoptosis, we used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to compare mitochondrial morphology in cells of the neuroepithelium and heart of control and hyperthermia-treated embryos. Because we know that the apoptotic pathway is activated some time during the first 5 hr after teratogen exposure is initiated, we assessed mitochondrial morphology at 1, 2.5, and 5 hr after day nine mouse embryos were exposed to hyperthermia (43 degrees C, 15 min). RESULTS In neuroepithelial cells of the prosencephalon, abnormally-shaped mitochondria were observed at the 1 hr time point and thereafter, whereas loss of cristae and shrunken mitochondria were noted at the 5 hr time point. In contrast, no obvious changes in mitochondria of heart cells were observed at any of the time points monitored. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that teratogen-induced cell death in neuroepithelial cells is temporally correlated with alterations in mitochondrial morphology, whereas the absence of cell death in the heart is correlated with a corresponding lack of change in mitochondrial morphology. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2003.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Kyu Kim
- Birth Defects Research Laboratory, Division of Genetics and Development, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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