Tissue-specific alternative RNA splicing of rat vesicle-associated membrane protein-1 (VAMP-1)

Indication for differential sorting of the rat v-SNARE splice isoforms VAMP-1a and -1b

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins are essential constituents of the intracellular trafficking machinery. The variable C-terminus in the 2 rat VAMP-1 splice isoforms VAMP-1a and -1b potentially acts as a sorting signal, because similar changes at the C-terminal end of a human VAMP-1 splice isoform resulted in its sorting to mitochondria. To evaluate the differences in the subcellular localization of these two v-SNARE proteins, VAMP-1a and -1b proteins tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) and red fluorescent protein (RFP) were expressed in HeLa, COS-7, and MDCK cells and evaluated by conventional confocal as well as total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. Regions consistent with the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus demonstrated a major overlap of both signals. In the periphery, vesicular structures were observed that mainly expressed one of the 2 isoforms. Within our experimental settings, we could not observe sorting of any of the 2 isoforms to mitochondria or peroxisomes, whereas both isoforms were found expressed in a minor subset of singular vesicles, which sporadically appeared to co-localize with the exocyst marker EXOC3/Sec6. Because vesicular structures were seen that expressed only one of the two splice variants, it is possible that VAMP-1a and VAMP-1b are sorted to distinct cellular compartments that require further characterization.

VAMP1 mutation causes dominant hereditary spastic ataxia in Newfoundland families

Our group previously described and mapped to chromosomal region 12p13 a form of dominantly inherited hereditary spastic ataxia (HSA) in three large Newfoundland (Canada) families. This report identifies vesicle-associated membrane protein 1 (VAMP1), which encodes a critical protein for synaptic exocytosis, as the responsible gene. In total, 50 affected individuals from these families and three independent probands from Ontario (Canada) share the disease phenotype together with a disruptive VAMP1 mutation that affects a critical donor site for the splicing of VAMP1 isoforms. This mutation leads to the loss of the only VAMP1 isoform (VAMP1A) expressed in the nervous system, thus highlighting an association between the well-studied VAMP1 and a neurological disorder. Given the variable phenotype seen in the affected individuals examined here, we believe that VAMP1 should be tested for mutations in patients with either ataxia or spastic paraplegia.

Identification of a novel Vamp1 splice variant in the cochlear nucleus

Cochlear nucleus neurons propagate auditory impulses to higher brain stem centers at rapid firing rates with high fidelity. Intrinsic to synaptic transmission are the SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) proteins engaged in vesicle fusion, release and recycling. Herein we report a novel splice variant of the SNARE protein Vamp1 (vesicle-associated membrane protein 1) within the cochlear nucleus. We previously demonstrated, through serial analysis of gene expression and microarray studies, that Vamp1 is differentially expressed among the subdivisions of the rat cochlear nucleus. The 3' end of this transcript, however, was poorly characterized and we could not initially confirm our findings. In this study, we designed RT-PCR primers using conserved 5' regions and the mouse 3' domain to validate the expression of Vamp1. Several species of Vamp1 were subsequently amplified from a rat brain cDNA library including a full length clone of Vamp1as and a novel splice variant we termed Vamp1nv. Using regional brain libraries Vamp1nv showed expression in the medulla and lack of expression in the cortex, cerebellum and thalamus. Expression of Vamp1nv was further confirmed and characterized by RT-PCR and real-time PCR in each of the cochlear nucleus subdivisions. The predicted protein sequence for Vamp1nv demonstrates a unique modification of the carboxy-terminal end of the protein as compared to known variants. This includes the appearance of two intra-vesicular serine residues with high predicted potential as kinase phosphorylation sites. Such splice variants of Vamp1 may alter the kinetics of SNARE complex formation and vesicle release and impart unique features to expressing neurons. This may be important for central auditory function and contribute to the distinct physiological properties observed in auditory neurons.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone-expressing neurons immortalized conditionally are activated by insulin: implication of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway

Energy balance exerts a critical influence on reproduction via changes in the circulating levels of hormones such as insulin. This modulation of the neuroendocrine reproductive axis ultimately involves variations in the activity of hypothalamic neurons expressing GnRH. Here we studied the effects of insulin in primary hypothalamic cell cultures as well as a GnRH neuronal cell line that we generated by conditional immortalization of adult hypothalamic neurons. These cells, which represent the first successful conditional immortalization of GnRH neurons, retain many of their mature phenotypic characteristics. In addition, we show that they express the insulin receptor. Consistently, their stimulation with insulin activates both the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and the Erk1/2 MAPK signaling pathways and stimulates a rapid increase in the expression of c-fos, demonstrating their responsiveness to this hormone. Further work performed in parallel in immortalized GnRH-expressing cells and primary neuronal cultures containing non-GnRH-expressing neurons shows that insulin induces the expression of GnRH in both models. In primary cultures, inhibition of the Erk1/2 pathway abolishes the stimulation of GnRH expression by insulin, whereas blockade of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway has no effect. In conclusion, these data strongly suggest that GnRH neurons are directly sensitive to insulin and implicate for the first time the MAPK Erk1/2 signaling pathway in the central effects of insulin on the neuroendocrine reproductive axis.

Expression of two membrane fusion proteins, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa and vesicle-associated membrane protein, in choroid plexus epithelium

In addition to being the major site of cerebrospinal fluid formation, the choroid plexus epithelium emerges as an important source of polypeptides in the brain. Physiologically regulated release of some polypeptides synthesized by the choroid plexus has been shown. The molecular mechanisms underlying this polypeptide secretion have not been characterized, however. In the present study, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa and vesicle-associated membrane protein, two membrane fusion proteins playing a critical role in exocytosis in neurons and endocrine cells, were found to be expressed in the choroid plexus epithelium. It was also shown that in choroidal epithelium, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa and vesicle-associated membrane protein stably interact. Two members of the vesicle-associated membrane protein family, vesicle-associated membrane protein-1 and vesicle-associated membrane protein-2, were expressed in the rat choroid plexus at the messenger RNA and protein level. However, their newly discovered isoforms, vesicle-associated membrane protein-1b and vesicle-associated membrane protein-2b, produced by alternative RNA splicing, were not detected in choroidal tissue. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that vesicle-associated membrane protein is confined to the cytoplasm of choroidal epithelium, whereas synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa is associated with plasma membranes, albeit with a varied cellular distribution among species studied. Specifically, in the rat choroid plexus, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa was localized to the basolateral membrane domain of choroidal epithelium and was expressed in small groups of cells. In comparison, in ovine and human choroidal tissues, apical staining for synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa was found in the majority of epithelial cells. These species-related differences in cellular synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa distribution suggested that the synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa homologue, synaptosome-associated protein of 23 kDa, is also expressed in the rat choroid plexus, which was confirmed by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. Our findings suggest that synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa and vesicle-associated membrane protein are involved in secretion of polypeptides from the choroid plexus epithelium. The presence of synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa and its homologue as well as multiple isoforms of vesicle-associated membrane protein in choroidal epithelium may play a role in the apical versus basolateral targeting of secretory vesicles.

Endothelial transcytotic machinery involves supramolecular protein-lipid complexes

We have demonstrated that the plasmalemmal vesicles (caveolae) of the continuous microvascular endothelium function as transcytotic vesicular carriers for protein molecules > 20 A and that transcytosis is an N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF)-dependent, N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive process. We have further investigated NSF interactions with endothelial proteins to find out 1) whether a complete set of fusion and targeting proteins is present in the endothelium; 2) whether they are organized in multimolecular complexes as in neurons; and 3) whether the endothelial multimolecular complexes differ from their neuronal counterparts, because of their specialized role in transcytosis. To generate the complexes, we have used myc-NSF, cultured pulmonary endothelial cells, and rat lung cytosol and membrane preparations; to detect them we have applied coimmunoprecipitation with myc antibodies; and to characterize them we have used velocity sedimentation and cross-linking procedures. We have found that both cytosolic and membrane fractions contain complexes that comprise beside soluble NSF attachment proteins and SNAREs (soluble NSF attachment protein receptor), rab 5, dynamin, caveolin, and lipids. By immunogold labeling and negative staining we have detected in these complexes, myc-NSF, syntaxin, dynamin, caveolin, and endogenous NSF. Similar complexes are formed by endogenous NSF. The results indicate that complexes with a distinct protein-lipid composition exist and suggest that they participate in targeting, fusion, and fission of caveolae with the endothelial plasmalemma.

Membrane fusion and exocytosis

Membrane fusion involves the merger of two phospholipid bilayers in an aqueous environment. In artificial lipid bilayers, fusion proceeds by means of defined transition states, including hourglass-shaped intermediates in which the proximal leaflets of the fusing membranes are merged whereas the distal leaflets are separate (fusion stalk), followed by the reversible opening of small aqueous fusion pores. Fusion of biological membranes requires the action of specific fusion proteins. Best understood are the viral fusion proteins that are responsible for merging the viral with the host cell membrane during infection. These proteins undergo spontaneous and dramatic conformational changes upon activation. In the case of the paradigmatic fusion proteins of the influenza virus and of the human immunodeficiency virus, an amphiphilic fusion peptide is inserted into the target membrane. The protein then reorients itself, thus forcing the fusing membranes together and inducing lipid mixing. Fusion of intracellular membranes in eukaryotic cells involves several protein families including SNAREs, Rab proteins, and Sec1/Munc-18 related proteins (SM-proteins). SNAREs form a novel superfamily of small and mostly membrane-anchored proteins that share a common motif of about 60 amino acids (SNARE motif). SNAREs reversibly assemble into tightly packed helical bundles, the core complexes. Assembly is thought to pull the fusing membranes closely together, thus inducing fusion. SM-proteins comprise a family of soluble proteins that bind to certain types of SNAREs and prevent the formation of core complexes. Rab proteins are GTPases that undergo highly regulated GTP-GDP cycles. In their GTP form, they interact with specific proteins, the effector proteins. Recent evidence suggests that Rab proteins function in the initial membrane contact connecting the fusing membranes but are not involved in the fusion reaction itself.

Neurotoxins affecting neuroexocytosis

Nerve terminals are specific sites of action of a very large number of toxins produced by many different organisms. The mechanism of action of three groups of presynaptic neurotoxins that interfere directly with the process of neurotransmitter release is reviewed, whereas presynaptic neurotoxins acting on ion channels are not dealt with here. These neurotoxins can be grouped in three large families: 1) the clostridial neurotoxins that act inside nerves and block neurotransmitter release via their metalloproteolytic activity directed specifically on SNARE proteins; 2) the snake presynaptic neurotoxins with phospholipase A(2) activity, whose site of action is still undefined and which induce the release of acethylcholine followed by impairment of synaptic functions; and 3) the excitatory latrotoxin-like neurotoxins that induce a massive release of neurotransmitter at peripheral and central synapses. Their modes of binding, sites of action, and biochemical activities are discussed in relation to the symptoms of the diseases they cause. The use of these toxins in cell biology and neuroscience is considered as well as the therapeutic utilization of the botulinum neurotoxins in human diseases characterized by hyperfunction of cholinergic terminals.

VAMP-1 has a highly variable C-terminus generated by alternative splicing

VAMP-1 (synaptobrevin1) is one of the key proteins in the SNARE complex which is involved in regulated exocytosis. Recently, Isenmann et al. (1998, Mol. Biol. Cell 9, 1649-1660) showed the extreme C-terminal region of VAMP-1A and 1B to be involved in subcellular targeting of the isoforms. Four new splice variants (VAMP-1C to F) were identified in addition to the previously published variants VAMP-1A and VAMP-1B. Interestingly, the four new isoforms also have variable sequences only at the extreme C-terminus. This suggests that the C-terminal region has an important function for VAMP-1 and vesicle targeting. All six variants were a result of alternative splicing that linked exons 1-4 which encode the conserved region of VAMP-1 with one of the exons 5A to 5F that encodes the highly variable extreme C-terminus. Exon (5A-E) encode C-termini of two to five amino acid residues, whereas exon 5F encoded a long C-terminal amino acid extension. The splice variants were differentially expressed in human brain, kidney, and inflammatory cells.

Characterization of an alternatively spliced isoform of rat vesicle associated membrane protein-2 (VAMP-2)

VAMPs are vesicle associated membrane proteins that are essential for secretion. A spliced isoform of rat VAMP-2, called VAMP-2B, is characterized in this study. The VAMP-2B transcript is the result of alternative RNA splicing in which an intron is retained. The predicted amino acid sequence of VAMP-2B differs from VAMP-2 at its carboxy-terminal end. Because recent studies have shown that VAMP's carboxy-terminal end influences the protein's sorting, the location of myc-epitope tagged VAMP-2B in PC12 cells was determined. Subcellular fractionation showed colocalization of myc-VAMP-2B and endogenous VAMP-2. Thus alternative RNA splicing does not affect VAMP-2 sorting in PC12 cells.

New perspectives on mechanisms involved in generating epithelial cell polarity

Polarized epithelial cells form barriers that separate biological compartments and regulate homeostasis by controlling ion and solute transport between those compartments. Receptors, ion transporters and channels, signal transduction proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins are organized into functionally and structurally distinct domains of the cell surface, termed apical and basolateral, that face these different compartments. This review is about mechanisms involved in the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity. Previous reports and reviews have adopted a Golgi-centric view of how epithelial cell polarity is established, in which the sorting of apical and basolateral membrane proteins in the Golgi complex is a specialized process in polarized cells, and the generation of cell surface polarity is a direct consequence of this process. Here, we argue that events at the cell surface are fundamental to the generation of cell polarity. We propose that the establishment of structural asymmetry in the plasma membrane is the first, critical event, and subsequently, this asymmetry is reinforced and maintained by delivery of proteins that were constitutively sorted in the Golgi. We propose a hierarchy of stages for establishing cell polarity.

A splice-isoform of vesicle-associated membrane protein-1 (VAMP-1) contains a mitochondrial targeting signal

Screening of a library derived from primary human endothelial cells revealed a novel human isoform of vesicle-associated membrane protein-1 (VAMP-1), a protein involved in the targeting and/or fusion of transport vesicles to their target membrane. We have termed this novel isoform VAMP-1B and designated the previously described isoform VAMP-1A. VAMP-1B appears to be an alternatively spliced form of VAMP-1. A similar rat splice variant of VAMP-1 (also termed VAMP-1B) has recently been reported. Five different cultured cell lines, from different lineages, all contained VAMP-1B but little or no detectable VAMP-1A mRNA, as assessed by PCR. In contrast, brain mRNA contained VAMP-1A but no VAMP-1B. The VAMP-1B sequence encodes a protein identical to VAMP-1A except for the carboxy-terminal five amino acids. VAMP-1 is anchored in the vesicle membrane by a carboxy-terminal hydrophobic sequence. In VAMP-1A the hydrophobic anchor is followed by a single threonine, which is the carboxy-terminal amino acid. In VAMP-1B the predicted hydrophobic membrane anchor is shortened by four amino acids, and the hydrophobic sequence is immediately followed by three charged amino acids, arginine-arginine-aspartic acid. Transfection of human endothelial cells with epitope-tagged VAMP-1B demonstrated that VAMP-1B was targeted to mitochondria whereas VAMP-1A was localized to the plasma membrane and endosome-like structures. Analysis of C-terminal mutations of VAMP-1B demonstrated that mitochondrial targeting depends both on the addition of positive charge at the C terminus and a shortened hydrophobic membrane anchor. These data suggest that mitochondria may be integrated, at least at a mechanistic level, to the vesicular trafficking pathways that govern protein movement between other organelles of the cell.