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Lundborg M, Wennberg C, Lindahl E, Norlén L. Simulating the Skin Permeation Process of Ionizable Molecules. J Chem Inf Model 2024; 64:5295-5302. [PMID: 38917349 PMCID: PMC11234375 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.4c00722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
It is commonly assumed that ionizable molecules, such as drugs, permeate through the skin barrier in their neutral form. By using molecular dynamics simulations of the charged and neutral states separately, we can study the dynamic protonation behavior during the permeation process. We have studied three weak acids and three weak bases and conclude that the acids are ionized to a larger extent than the bases, when passing through the headgroup region of the lipid barrier structure, at pH values close to their pKa. It can also be observed that even if these dynamic protonation simulations are informative, in the cases studied herein they are not necessary for the calculation of permeability coefficients. It is sufficient to base the calculations only on the neutral form, as is commonly done.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Lundborg
- SciLifeLab, ERCO Pharma AB, 171 65 Solna, Sweden
- Department of Applied Physics, SciLifeLab, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christian Wennberg
- SciLifeLab, ERCO Pharma AB, 171 65 Solna, Sweden
- UC AB, 111 64 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erik Lindahl
- Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, SciLifeLab, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Applied Physics, Swedish e-Science Research Center, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars Norlén
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology (CMB), Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Solna, Sweden
- Dermatology Clinic, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 77 Solna, Sweden
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2
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Suzuki T, Seki T, Seki T. Study on a Novel Transdermal Therapeutic System that Combines the Achievement of Supersaturation by pH-shift Method and User–Activated System. J Pharm Innov 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12247-022-09702-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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3
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Miller MA, Kasting GB. Absorption of solvent-deposited weak electrolytes and their salts through human skin in vitro. Int J Pharm 2022; 620:121753. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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4
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Cristofoli M, Kung CP, Hadgraft J, Lane ME, Sil BC. Ion Pairs for Transdermal and Dermal Drug Delivery: A Review. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:909. [PMID: 34202939 PMCID: PMC8234378 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13060909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ion pairing is a strategy used to increase the permeation of topically applied ionised drugs. Formation occurs when the electrostatic energy of attraction between oppositely charged ions exceeds their mean thermal energy, making it possible for them to draw together and attain a critical distance. These ions then behave as a neutral species, allowing them to partition more readily into a lipid environment. Partition coefficient studies may be used to determine the potential of ions to pair and partition into an organic phase but cannot be relied upon to predict flux. Early researchers indicated that temperature, size of ions and dielectric constant of the solvent system all contributed to the formation of ion pairs. While size is important, this may be outweighed by improved lipophilicity of the counter ion due to increased length of the carbon chain. Organic counter ions are more effective than inorganic moieties in forming ion pairs. In addition to being used to increase permeation, ion pairs have been used to control and even prevent permeation of the active ingredient. They have also been used to stabilise solid lipid nanoparticle formulations. Ion pairs have been used in conjunction with permeation enhancers, and permeation enhancers have been used as counter ions in ion pairing. This review attempts to show the various ways in which ion pairs have been used in drug delivery via the skin. It also endeavours to extract and consolidate common approaches in order to inform future formulations for topical and transdermal delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mignon Cristofoli
- School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Road, London N7 8DB, UK;
| | - Chin-Ping Kung
- School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK; (C.-P.K.); (J.H.); (M.E.L.)
| | - Jonathan Hadgraft
- School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK; (C.-P.K.); (J.H.); (M.E.L.)
| | - Majella E. Lane
- School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, UK; (C.-P.K.); (J.H.); (M.E.L.)
| | - Bruno C. Sil
- School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, 166-220 Holloway Road, London N7 8DB, UK;
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5
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Haq A, Chandler M, Michniak-Kohn B. Solubility-physicochemical-thermodynamic theory of penetration enhancer mechanism of action. Int J Pharm 2020; 575:118920. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 11/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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6
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Furuishi T, Kunimasu K, Fukushima K, Ogino T, Okamoto K, Yonemochi E, Tomono K, Suzuki T. Formulation design and evaluation of a transdermal drug delivery system containing a novel eptazocine salt with the Eudragit® E adhesive. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2019.101289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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7
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Otto DP, Combrinck J, Otto A, Tiedt LR, de Villiers MM. Dissipative Particle Dynamics Investigation of the Transport of Salicylic Acid through a Simulated In Vitro Skin Permeation Model. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2018; 11:ph11040134. [PMID: 30563088 PMCID: PMC6316323 DOI: 10.3390/ph11040134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 11/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Permeation models are often used to determine diffusion properties of a drug through a membrane as it is released from a delivery system. In order to circumvent problematic in vivo studies, diffusion studies can be performed in vitro, using (semi-)synthetic membranes. In this study salicylic acid permeation was studied, employing a nitrocellulose membrane. Both saturated and unsaturated salicylic acid solutions were studied. Additionally, the transport of salicylic acid through the nitrocellulose membrane was simulated by computational modelling. Experimental observations could be explained by the transport mechanism that was revealed by dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations. The DPD model was developed with the aid of atomistic scale molecular dynamics (AA-MD). The choice of a suitable model membrane can therefore, be predicted by AA-MD and DPD simulations. Additionally, the difference in the magnitude of release from saturated and unsaturated salicylic acid and solutions could also be observed with DPD. Moreover, computational studies can reveal hidden variables such as membrane-permeant interaction that cannot be measured experimentally. A recommendation is made for the development of future model permeation membranes is to incorporate computational modelling to aid the choice of model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Otto
- Research Focus Area for Chemical Resource Beneficiation, Laboratory for Analytical Services, North-West University, 11 Hoffman Street, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa.
| | - Johann Combrinck
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, 11 Hoffman Street, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa.
| | - Anja Otto
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, 11 Hoffman Street, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa.
| | - Louwrens R Tiedt
- Research Focus Area for Chemical Resource Beneficiation, Laboratory for Electron Microscopy, North-West University, 11 Hoffman Street, Potchefstroom 2531, South Africa.
| | - Melgardt M de Villiers
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin⁻Madison, 777 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705, USA.
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8
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Liu X, Zhang K, Abraham MH. Linear free energy relationship analysis of permeability across polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) membranes and comparison with human skin permeation in vitro. Eur J Pharm Sci 2018; 123:524-530. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2018.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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9
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Quantitative prediction of ionization effect on human skin permeability. Int J Pharm 2017; 522:222-233. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2017] [Revised: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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10
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Waters LJ, Bhuiyan AKMMH. Ionisation effects on the permeation of pharmaceutical compounds through silicone membrane. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 141:553-557. [PMID: 26896663 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.01.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Silicone membrane is frequently used as an in vitro skin mimic whereby experiments incorporate a range of buffered media which may vary in pH. As a consequence of such variability in pH there is a corresponding variability in the degree of ionisation which in turn, could influence permeation through the mainly hydrophobic-rich membrane structure. This study reports the effect of pH on the permeation of five model compounds (benzoic acid, benzotriazole, ibuprofen, ketoprofen and lidocaine). For the five compounds analysed, each at three distinct percentages of ionisation, it was found that the greater extent of permeation was always for the more 'neutral', i.e. more greatly unionised, species rather than the anionic or cationic species. These findings fit with the theory that the hydrophobic membrane encourages permeation of 'lipid-like' structures, i.e. the more unionised form of compounds. However, results obtained with an Inverse Gas Chromatography Surface Energy Analyser (iGC SEA) indicate the membrane surface to be an electron dense environment. In the knowledge that unionised forms of compounds permeate (rather than the charged species) this negatively charged surface was not anticipated, i.e. the basic membrane surface did not appear to affect permeation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Waters
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Applied Science, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK.
| | - A K M M H Bhuiyan
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Applied Science, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
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11
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Chantasart D, Chootanasoontorn S, Suksiriworapong J, kevin Li S. Investigation of pH Influence on Skin Permeation Behavior of Weak Acids Using Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:3459-3470. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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12
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Combrinck J, Otto A, du Plessis J. Whey protein/polysaccharide-stabilized emulsions: Effect of polymer type and pH on release and topical delivery of salicylic acid. AAPS PharmSciTech 2014; 15:588-600. [PMID: 24550100 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-014-0081-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Emulsions are widely used as topical formulations in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. They are thermodynamically unstable and require emulsifiers for stabilization. Studies have indicated that emulsifiers could affect topical delivery of actives, and this study was therefore designed to investigate the effects of different polymers, applied as emulsifiers, as well as the effects of pH on the release and topical delivery of the active. O/w emulsions were prepared by the layer-by-layer technique, with whey protein forming the first layer around the oil droplets, while either chitosan or carrageenan was subsequently adsorbed to the protein at the interface. Additionally, the emulsions were prepared at three different pH values to introduce different charges to the polymers. The active ingredient, salicylic acid, was incorporated into the oil phase of the emulsions. Physical characterization of the resulting formulations, i.e., droplet size, zeta potential, stability, and turbidity in the water phase, was performed. Release studies were conducted, after which skin absorption studies were performed on the five most stable emulsions, by using Franz type diffusion cells and utilizing human, abdominal skin membranes. It was found that an increase in emulsion droplet charge could negatively affect the release of salicylic acid from these formulations. Contrary, positively charged emulsion droplets were found to enhance dermal and transdermal delivery of salicylic acid from emulsions. It was hypothesized that electrostatic complex formation between the emulsifier and salicylic acid could affect its release, whereas electrostatic interaction between the emulsion droplets and skin could influence dermal/transdermal delivery of the active.
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13
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Küchler S, Strüver K, Friess W. Reconstructed skin models as emerging tools for drug absorption studies. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:1255-63. [PMID: 23829446 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.816284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION As humans can come into contact with xenobiotics intentionally or accidentally, knowledge about the skin absorption of these substances is crucial and requires reliable models and test procedures. Animal experiments should be avoided whenever possible, instead of making the use of in vitro systems. Furthermore, due to limited availability of normal and especially diseased human skin, alternative test systems such as reconstructed skin models are urgently required. AREAS COVERED This article discusses the advantages and limitations of excised human skin, animal skin and reconstructed skin models for absorption testing in vitro. Furthermore, the authors also describe the standard procedure for skin absorption testing and give an excursion to the applicability of artificial membranes. Finally, the article highlights the progress in the development of reconstructed disease models and provides an extensive overview about past and ongoing research in this field. EXPERT OPINION The development and validation of in vitro systems for skin absorption testing is inevitable. More research efforts are required for the development of reconstructed disease models. Reconstructed skin models need to be improved, especially in terms of complexity to mimic the in vivo situation better. It should not, however, be the main goal to imitate the in vivo situation exactly, but to establish reliable systems that ensure predictive and reliable data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Küchler
- Institute for Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Freie Universität , Königin-Luise-Str. 2-4, 14195, Berlin , Germany +49 30 838 55065 ; +49 30 838 53944 ;
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14
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Judd AM, Scurr DJ, Heylings JR, Wan KW, Moss GP. Distribution and visualisation of chlorhexidine within the skin using ToF-SIMS: a potential platform for the design of more efficacious skin antiseptic formulations. Pharm Res 2013; 30:1896-905. [PMID: 23636837 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-013-1032-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE In order to increase the efficacy of a topically applied antimicrobial compound the permeation profile, localisation and mechanism of action within the skin must first be investigated. METHODS Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was used to visualise the distribution of a conventional antimicrobial compound, chlorhexidine digluconate, within porcine skin without the need for laborious preparation, radio-labels or fluorescent tags. RESULTS High mass resolution and high spatial resolution mass spectra and chemical images were achieved when analysing chlorhexidine digluconate treated cryo-sectioned porcine skin sections by ToF-SIMS. The distribution of chlorhexidine digluconate was mapped throughout the skin sections and our studies indicate that the compound appears to be localised within the stratum corneum. In parallel, tape strips taken from chlorhexidine digluconate treated porcine skin were analysed by ToF-SIMS to support the distribution profile obtained from the skin sections. CONCLUSIONS ToF-SIMS can act as a powerful complementary technique to map the distribution of topically applied compounds within the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Judd
- School of Pharmacy, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK.
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15
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Transdermal absorption of memantine – Effect of chemical enhancers, iontophoresis, and role of enhancer lipophilicity. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2012; 82:164-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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16
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The relevance of polymeric synthetic membranes in topical formulation assessment and drug diffusion study. Arch Pharm Res 2012; 35:579-93. [PMID: 22553050 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-012-0401-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2011] [Revised: 10/09/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic membranes are composed of thin sheets of polymeric macromolecules that can control the passage of components through them. Generally, synthetic membranes used in drug diffusion studies have one of two functions: skin simulation or quality control. Synthetic membranes for skin simulation, such as the silicone-based membranes polydimethylsiloxane and Carbosil, are generally hydrophobic and rate limiting, imitating the stratum corneum. In contrast, synthetic membranes for quality control, such as cellulose esters and polysulfone, are required to act as a support rather than a barrier. These synthetic membranes also often contain pores; hence, they are called porous membranes. The significance of Franz diffusion studies and synthetic membranes in quality control studies involves an understanding of the fundamentals of synthetic membranes. This article provides a general overview of synthetic membranes, including a brief background of the history and the common applications of synthetic membranes. This review then explores the types of synthetic membranes, the transport mechanisms across them, and their relevance in choosing a synthetic membrane in Franz diffusion cell studies for formulation assessment purposes.
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17
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Fiala S, Brown MB, Jones SA. Dynamic in-situ eutectic formation for topical drug delivery. J Pharm Pharmacol 2011; 63:1428-36. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2011.01346.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
The relationship between the solution-state chemistry of eutectic systems and their transmembrane transport characteristics is difficult to define as these mixtures are sensitive to delivery vehicle-induced penetration enhancement. Through in-situ formation of a molten eutectic mixture using highly evaporative sprays this study aimed to gain an understanding of solution-state thermodynamic and chemical properties of eutectic combinations pertinent to transmembrane transport in the absence of a delivery vehicle.
Methods
In-situ molten lidocaine–prilocaine eutectics were formed using a hydroflouroalkane (HFA) propellant. Transport through silicone membranes and human skin in upright Franz diffusion cells was determined using in-house manufactured creams as controls.
Key findings
The application of the two drugs in an HFA spray produced a molten oil even when the melting point of the drug mixture was above the experimental temperature at the membrane surface. In the absence of vehicle effects, molecule presentation to the membrane interface was most effective using a lidocaine-rich mixture of 0.7% w/w lidocaine:prilocaine – 1985.06 ± 128.87 µg/h/cm2.
Conclusions
There appeared to be no link between melting point and transmembrane transport of lidocaine:prilocaine from a eutectic mixture. The rate of drug presentation to the membrane interface, which was highest in drug-rich, high-activity molten eutectic mixtures, was the driver for transmembrane transport in the absence of significant barrier interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Fiala
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Marc B Brown
- School of Pharmacy, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, Herts, UK
- MedPharm Ltd, Guilford, UK
| | - Stuart A Jones
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
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18
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Gannu R, Yamsani VV, Palem CR, Yamsani SK, Yamsani MR. Iontophoretic delivery of lisinopril: Optimization of process variables by Box-Behnken statistical design. Pharm Dev Technol 2010. [DOI: 10.3109/10837450903085418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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19
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Şanlı O, Karaca I, Işıklan N. Preparation, characterization, and salicylic acid release behavior of chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) blend microspheres. J Appl Polym Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/app.29319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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20
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Kokate A, Li X, Singh P, Jasti BR. Effect of Thermodynamic Activities of the Unionized and Ionized Species on Drug Flux across Buccal Mucosa. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:4294-306. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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21
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López-Cervantes M, Márquez-Mejía E, Cázares-Delgadillo J, Quintanar-Guerrero D, Ganem-Quintanar A, Angeles-Anguiano E. Chemical Enhancers for the Absorption of Substances Through the Skin: Laurocapram and Its Derivatives. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2008; 32:267-86. [PMID: 16556532 DOI: 10.1080/03639040500518708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Absorption enhancers are substances used for temporarily increasing a membrane's permeability (e.g., the skin and mucosa), either by interacting with its components (lipids or proteins) or by increasing the membrane/vehicle partition coefficient. This article presents the results of biophysical and permeability studies performed with Laurocapram and its analogues. As shown, Laurocapram and its analogues present different enhancing efficacies, for most of both hydrophilic and lipophilic substances. The enhancing effect of Laurocapram (Azone) is attributed to different mechanisms, such as insertion of its dodecyl group into the intercellular lipidic bilayer, increase of the motion of the alkylic chains of lipids, and fluidization of the hydrophobic regions of the lamellate structure. Toxicological studies reveal a low toxicity for Laurocapram, and for some derivatives, a relationship exists between toxicity and the number of carbons in the alkylic chain. Very important, when applied to human skin, Laurocapram shows a minimal absorption, being quickly eliminated from circulation. However, although Laurocapram and its derivatives have been shown to provide enhancement, they have not been widely accepted because of their suspected pharmacological activity or questions about their safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam López-Cervantes
- División de Estudios de Posgrado (Tecnología Farmacéutica), Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuautitlán Izcalli, Edo. de México
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22
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Ma R, Fang L, Niu X, Jiang Y, He Z. Effect of ion-pairing on the permeation of glibenclamide through rat skin. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1773-2247(08)50053-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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23
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Frum Y, Eccleston GM, Meidan VM. Evidence that drug flux across synthetic membranes is described by normally distributed permeability coefficients. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2007; 67:434-9. [PMID: 17459683 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2007.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2006] [Revised: 03/05/2007] [Accepted: 03/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Over recent decades, the use of in vitro diffusion cell studies to assess skin permeability has evolved into a major research tool, providing key insights into the relationships between skin, drug and formulation. Sometimes, such studies involve synthetic membranes as this approach can yield useful inferences with respect to drug-skin partitioning and diffusion phenomena. Yet despite the popularity of such studies, it is still not at all known whether typical solute transport across synthetic barriers results in a normal distribution of permeability coefficients or alternatively some type of skewed distribution. The present study aims to shed light on this issue. To this end, five compounds (testosterone, oestradiol, corticosterone, aldosterone and adenosine) exhibiting a broad range of octanol-water partition coefficient values were selected as test penetrants. The protocol involved taking multiple replicate measurements of each drug's passive steady state flux through poly(dimethylsiloxane) membrane. Each penetrant's resultant permeability coefficient database was subjected to a Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test for normality. It was found that the permeability coefficients of all five drugs were distributed in a Gaussian-normal fashion. The theoretical significance and practical impact of these findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yakov Frum
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, SIPBS, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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24
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Ruiz Martinez MA, López-Viota Gallardo J, de Benavides MM, de Dios García López-Duran J, Gallardo Lara V. Rheological behavior of gels and meloxicam release. Int J Pharm 2007; 333:17-23. [PMID: 17056213 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.09.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2006] [Revised: 09/25/2006] [Accepted: 09/25/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to identify a gel with suitable organoleptic and rheological properties (spreadability, texture and viscosity) for topical administration, designed to allow fast release of the active principle. The release of Meloxicam (anti-inflammatory agent) from olive oil lipogels was compared with a Carbopol hydrophilic prepared gel. In order to improve the diffusion of the active principle, two different artificial membranes with different pore size were used, before release assays in diffusion cells were compared. Drug released rate were obtained by Higuchi's model. Release rate and rheological properties relations were studied, and the best results were obtained for the gel prepared with an olive oil emulgent (Olivem 900).
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25
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Asman G, Şanlı O, Tuncel D. pH- and temperature-sensitivein vitro release of salicylic acid through poly(vinyl alcohol-g-acrylamide) membranes. J Appl Polym Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/app.27491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Asman G, Şanlı O, Tuncel D. In vitro release of salicylic acid through poly(vinyl alcohol-g-itaconic acid) membranes. J Appl Polym Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/app.27484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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27
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Leveque N, Raghavan SL, Lane ME, Hadgraft J. Use of a molecular form technique for the penetration of supersaturated solutions of salicylic acid across silicone membranes and human skin in vitro. Int J Pharm 2006; 318:49-54. [PMID: 16650701 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2004] [Revised: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/12/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Permeation enhancement of salicylic acid (SA) from supersaturated solutions formed using a 'molecular form' technique was investigated. In a conventional cosolvent technique, two solvents are used, one in which the drug is considerably more soluble than the other. Propylene glycol and water have been predominantly used as cosolvents to create supersaturation in skin permeation enhancement. In this paper, we report the use of buffer solutions with different pHs as media for producing different molecular forms. Supersaturated solutions were prepared using pH 8:pH 2 (80:20 v/v), which gave a nominal pH when mixed of around 5. Model silicone membranes and human skin were used. Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) was employed to stabilise the supersaturated states. Stability data showed that while the SA supersaturated solutions without HPMC crystallised between 15 min and 46 h depending on the degree of supersaturation, the solutions with HPMC were stable for more than 2 months. The flux of SA increased with the degree of saturation for solutions prepared in a 80:20 buffer pH 8/buffer pH 2 mixture. Although the fluxes of SA with and without HPMC were similar both through silicone membrane and human skin, HPMC was found to be effective in increasing the stability of supersaturated solutions of SA.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Leveque
- Laboratoire d'Ingenierie et de Biologie Cutanees, Faculté de Medecine et de Pharmacie, 25000 Besancon, France
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Şanlı O, Orhan E, Asman G. Release of salicylic acid through poly(vinyl alcohol)/poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) and poly(vinyl alcohol-g-N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) membranes. J Appl Polym Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/app.24453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Khan GM, Frum Y, Sarheed O, Eccleston GM, Meidan VM. Assessment of drug permeability distributions in two different model skins. Int J Pharm 2005; 303:81-7. [PMID: 16102922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2005.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2005] [Revised: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 07/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Past in vitro studies with human skin have indicated that drug permeability coefficient (Kp) distributions do not always follow a Gaussian-normal pattern. This has major statistical implications, exemplified by the fact that use of t-tests to evaluate significance is limited to normally distributed populations. Percutaneous absorption research often involves using animal or synthetic skins to simulate less readily available human skin. However, negligible work has been performed on assessing the permeability variabilities of these model membranes. This paper aims to fill this gap. To this end, four studies were undertaken representing two different drugs (caffeine and testosterone) with each drug penetrating through two different model skins (silicone membrane and pig skin). It was determined that in the silicone membrane studies, both compounds' Kp distributions could be fitted to a normal pattern. In contrast, in the pig skin studies, there were notable differences between each drug. While the testosterone Kp values could be fitted to a normal distribution, this was not possible with the caffeine Kp data, which could be fitted to a log-normal distribution. There is some evidence from the literature as well as physicochemical considerations that these outcomes may reflect general trends that are dependent upon both membrane and penetrant properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gul M Khan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan (NWFP), Pakistan
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30
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Kamal MAHM, Nabekura T, Kitagawa S. Permeability of ionized salicylate derivatives through guinea pig dorsal skin. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2005; 53:441-3. [PMID: 15802849 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.53.441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
pH-dependency of skin permeability to salicylic acid was examined in excised guinea pig dorsal skin. Permeation followed the pH-partition theory at acidic pH. However, above pH 5.0 the observed permeability coefficients were larger than the estimated values obtained from the ratio of the undissociated forms. These findings are quite different from those obtained using the same drug and a silicone rubber membrane, in which permeability coefficients were consistent with the pH-partition theory. The findings suggested that permeation of salicylate as anions occurred at a neutral skin pH. The permeability coefficient of the ionized form was estimated to be about 1.6% of the nonionized form. We also examined the skin permeability of salicylate and its five 5-substituents and two 3-substituents at pH 7.4. We investigated the relationship between their permeability coefficients and the physico-chemical properties of the substituents. Multi regression analysis on the permeability coefficients showed a parabolic relationship between the values of the hydrophobic parameter (pi) and the logarithms of the permeability coefficients. These findings suggested that the ionic permeation pathway of salicylate derivatives is controlled by hydrophobic as well as hydrophilic properties.
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Niesner R, Peker B, Schlüsche P, Gericke KH, Hoffmann C, Hahne D, Müller-Goymann C. 3D-resolved investigation of the pH gradient in artificial skin constructs by means of fluorescence lifetime imaging. Pharm Res 2005; 22:1079-87. [PMID: 16028008 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-005-5304-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2005] [Accepted: 04/14/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The development of substitutes for the human skin, e.g., artificial skin constructs (ASCs), is of particular importance for pharmaceutical and dermatologic research because they represent economical test samples for the validation of new drugs. In this regard, it is essential for the skin substitutes to be reliable models of the genuine skin, i.e., to have similar morphology and functionality. Particularly important is the barrier function, i.e., the selective permeability of the skin, which is strongly related to the epidermal pH gradient. Because the pH significantly influences the permeation profile of ionizable drugs such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, it is of major importance to quantitatively measure the epidermal pH gradient of the ASC and compare it to that of genuine skin. METHODS Using three-dimensional fluorescence lifetime imaging combined with two-photon scanning microscopy, we measured with submicron resolution the three-dimensional pH gradient in the epidermis of ASCs stained with 2',7'-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5/6-carboxyfluorescein. RESULTS Similar to genuine skin, the surface of the artificial epidermis has an acidic character (pH 5.9), whereas in the deeper layers the pH increases up to 7.0. Moreover, the pH gradient differs in the cell interior (maximally 7.2) and in the intercellular matrix (maximally 6.6). Apart from the similitude of the pH distribution, the genuine and the artificial skin prove to have similar morphologies and to be characterized by similar distributions of the refractive index. CONCLUSIONS Artificial skin is a reliable model of genuine human skin, e.g., in permeability studies, because it is characterized by a similar pH gradient, a similar morphology, and a similar distribution of the refractive index to that of genuine skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raluca Niesner
- Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Technical University, Braunschweig, Germany.
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Martínez-Pla JJ, Martín-Biosca Y, Sagrado S, Villanueva-Camañas RM, Medina-Hernández MJ. Evaluation of the pH effect of formulations on the skin permeability of drugs by biopartitioning micellar chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2005; 1047:255-62. [PMID: 15460257 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2004.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Dermal absorption of chemicals is an area of increasing interest for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, as well as in dermal exposure and risk assessment processes. Biopartitioning micellar chromatography (BMC) is a mode of reversed phase micellar chromatography that has proved to be useful in the description and prediction of several pharmacological properties of xenobiotics including oral drug absorption, ocular and skin drug permeability. The present paper deals with the application of biopartitionig micellar chromatography to evaluate the pH effect on the skin permeability of twelve non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and lidocaine. For this purpose the BMC retention of the whole set of compounds at several pHs between 3.5 and 8 was obtained. Using the BMC retention-permeability model previously reported, the permeability of the compounds at different pH values was estimated. The predicted permeability values at different pH values for ketoprofen, lidocaine, salicylic acid and ibuprofen agree with those experimental reported in literature for these compounds using excised human and rat skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Martínez-Pla
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultat de Farmacia, Universitat de Valencia, C/Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, E-46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
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Magnusson BM, Anissimov YG, Cross SE, Roberts MS. Molecular size as the main determinant of solute maximum flux across the skin. J Invest Dermatol 2004; 122:993-9. [PMID: 15102090 DOI: 10.1111/j.0022-202x.2004.22413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
One of the most important determinants of dermatological and systemic penetration after topical application is the delivery or flux of solutes into or through the skin. The maximum dose of solute able to be delivered over a given period of time and area of application is defined by its maximum flux (J(max), mol per cm(2) per h) from a given vehicle. In this work, J(max) values from aqueous solution across human skin were acquired or estimated from experimental data and correlated with solute physicochemical properties. Whereas epidermal permeability coefficients (k(p)) are optimally correlated to solute octanol-water partition coefficient (K(ow)) and molecular weight (MW) was found to be the dominant determinant of J(max) for this literature data set: log J(max)=-3.90-0.0190MW (n=87, r(2)=0.847, p<0.001). Estimated solubility in octanol (S(oc)) was also a determinant, but improvement in the regression by the addition of log S(oc) was small (r(2) increased to 0.856). Addition of other physicochemical parameters to MW by forward stepwise regression only marginally improved the regression with a melting point (Mpt) term (r(2)=0.879) and then hydrogen bonding acceptor capability (H(a)) (r(2)=0.917) is significant. Validation of the equation above was carried with a number of other data sets: an aqueous vehicle with full- and split-thickness skin (r(2)=0.784, n=56), some pure solutes (r(2)=0.537, n=34), an aqueous vehicle with ionizable solutes (r(2)=0.282, n=54) and solutes from a propylene glycol vehicle (r(2)=0.484, n=36). An analysis of the entire database gave the equation log J(max)=-4.52-0.0141MW (n=278, r(2)=0.688, p<0.001), with inclusion of Mpt and H(a) increasing r(2) to 0.760 (n=269). Separate analysis of full- and split-thickness skin data confirmed that the dermal resistance term had only a marginal effect on overall J(max). Application of the latter model to an in vivo situation where the dermal capillary bed is slightly below the epidermal-dermal junction revealed that the dermal resistance term was unnecessary for in vivo predictions for most solutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice M Magnusson
- Therapeutics Research Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
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Leveque N, Makki S, Hadgraft J, Humbert P. Comparison of Franz cells and microdialysis for assessing salicylic acid penetration through human skin. Int J Pharm 2004; 269:323-8. [PMID: 14706244 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2003.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to compare Franz cells (FC) and microdialysis (MD) for monitoring the skin absorption of salicylic acid (SA). The influence of pH on SA flux was also assessed by these two techniques. Excised abdominal human skin was used in the experiments. SA was dissolved in phosphate buffer solutions of pH 2, 5 and 7 (2 mg/ml). SA concentrations in the receptor FC solutions and in MD samples were assessed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results demonstrate that the flux of SA decreased with increased pH. The profiles permeation determined by Franz cells and microdialysis were similar. However, whatever the pH, the SA flux was higher with microdialysis than with Franz cells. The results showed that SA percutaneous permeation conformed to the pH partition hypothesis. The flux of SA was different when it was determined by the two techniques. The collect of SA, by these two techniques is different. The results of the two techniques are compared and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Leveque
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie et de Biologie Cutanées, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie, Place saint Jacques, 25030 Besancon, France
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Baynes RE, Barlow BM, Riviere JE. Dermal Disposition of Triazine in Cutting Fluid Mixtures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1081/cus-120026301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Cross SE, Thompson MJ, Roberts MS. Transdermal penetration of vasoconstrictors--present understanding and assessment of the human epidermal flux and retention of free bases and ion-pairs. Pharm Res 2003; 20:270-4. [PMID: 12636167 DOI: 10.1023/a:1022235507186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE As reductions in dermal clearance increase the residence time of solutes in the skin and underlying tissues we compared the topical penetration of potentially useful vasoconstrictors (VCs) through human epidermis as both free bases and ion-pairs with salicylic acid (SA). METHODS We determined the in vitro epidermal flux of ephedrine, naphazoline, oxymetazoline, phenylephrine, and xylometazoline applied as saturated solutions in propylene glycol:water (1:1) and of ephedrine, naphazoline and tetrahydrozoline as 10% solutions of 1:1 molar ratio ion-pairs with SA in liquid paraffin. RESULTS As free bases, ephedrine had the highest maximal flux, Jmax = 77.4 +/- 11.7 microg/cm2/h, being 4-fold higher than tetrahydrozoline and xylometazoline, 6-fold higher than phenylephrine, 10-fold higher than naphazoline and 100-fold higher than oxymetazoline. Stepwise regression of solute physicochemical properties identified melting point as the most significant predictor of flux. As ion-pairs with SA, ephedrine and naphazoline had similar fluxes (11.5 +/- 2.3 and 12.0 +/- 1.6 microg/cm2/h respectively), whereas tetrahydrozoline was approximately 3-fold slower. Corresponding fluxes of SA from the ion-pairs were 18.6 +/- 0.6, 7.8+/- 0.8 and 1.1 +/- 0.1 respectively. Transdermal transport of VC's is discussed. CONCLUSIONS Epidermal retention of VCs and SA did not correspond to their molar ratio on application and confirmed that following partitioning into the stratum corneum, ion-pairs separate and further penetration is governed by individual solute characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheree E Cross
- Therapeutics Research Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland 4102, Australia
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Al-Khalili M, Meidan VM, Michniak BB. Iontophoretic transdermal delivery of buspirone hydrochloride in hairless mouse skin. AAPS PHARMSCI 2003; 5:E14. [PMID: 12866941 PMCID: PMC2751522 DOI: 10.1208/ps050214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2002] [Accepted: 03/03/2003] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The transdermal delivery of buspirone hydrochloride across hairless mouse skin and the combined effect of iontophoresis and terpene enhancers were evaluated in vitro using Franz diffusion cells. Iontophoretic delivery was optimized by evaluating the effect of drug concentration, current density, and pH of the vehicle solution. Increasing the current density from 0.05 to 0.1 mA/cm2 resulted in doubling of the iontophoretic flux of buspirone hydrochloride, while increasing drug concentration from 1% to 2% had no effect on flux. Using phosphate buffer to adjust the pH of the drug solution decreased the buspirone hydrochloride iontophoretic flux relative to water solutions. Incorporating buspirone hydrochloride into ethanol:water (50:50 vol/vol) based gel formulations using carboxymethylcellulose and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose had no effect on iontophoretic delivery. Incorporation of three terpene enhancers (menthol, cineole, and terpineol) into the gel resulted in a synergistic effect when combined with iontophoresis. Menthol was the most active enhancer, and when combined with iontophoresis it was possible to deliver 10 mg/cm2/day of buspirone hydrochloride.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Al-Khalili
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of South Carolina, 29208 Columbia, SC
| | - Victor M. Meidan
- University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School, 07103 Newark, NJ
| | - Boeena B. Michniak
- University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey-New Jersey Medical School, 07103 Newark, NJ
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Kitagawa S, Kasamaki M. Enhancement effects of double-chained cationic surfactants of n-dimethyldialkylammoniums on permeability of salicylate through guinea pig dorsal skin. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2002; 50:1370-2. [PMID: 12372865 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.50.1370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We examined the enhancement effects of the double-chained cationic surfactants of n-dimethyldialkylammoniums (CH(3))(2)N(+)(C(n)H(2n+1))(2) on the permeation of anionic salicylate through excised guinea pig dorsal skin at pH 7.4. Among them, n-dimethyldidecylammonium (2C10), which seemed to form micelles, had dose-dependent enhancement effects at concentrations of more than 0.1 mM, and about a ninety-fold increase in the permeability coefficient of salicylate was observed at 2 mM. The enhancement effect of 2C10 was larger than those of single-chained cationic surfactants of n-alkyltrimethylammoniums. n-Dimethyldilaurylammonium (2C12), which seemed to form bilayer vesicles, induced about a twenty five-fold increase in the permeability coefficient. The enhancement effects of n-dimethyldialkylammoniums decreased with the increase in their alkyl chain lengths. In contrast, only slight stimulation by these cationic surfactants was observed for silicon rubber membrane permeation of salicylate. Analysis of the retention of the salicylate in the skin suggested that the double-chained cationic surfactants-induced increase in the transfer of salicylate to the skin is the main reason for the marked stimulation of the skin permeation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Kitagawa
- Niigata University of Pharmacy and Applied Life Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Japan.
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Abstract
Optimisation of drug delivery through human skin is important in modern therapy. This review considers drug-vehicle interactions (drug or prodrug selection, chemical potential control, ion pairs, coacervates and eutectic systems) and the role of vesicles and particles (liposomes, transfersomes, ethosomes, niosomes). We can modify the stratum corneum by hydration and chemical enhancers, or bypass or remove this tissue via microneedles, ablation and follicular delivery. Electrically assisted methods (ultrasound, iontophoresis, electroporation, magnetophoresis, photomechanical waves) show considerable promise. Of particular interest is the synergy between chemical enhancers, ultrasound, iontophoresis and electroporation.
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Affiliation(s)
- B W Barry
- Drug Delivery Group, School of Pharmacy, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hadgraft
- Medway Sciences, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK.
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