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Wu Y, Hu K, Liu S. Computational models advance deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. NETWORK (BRISTOL, ENGLAND) 2024:1-32. [PMID: 38923890 DOI: 10.1080/0954898x.2024.2361799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation(DBS) has become an effective intervention for advanced Parkinson's disease(PD), but the exact mechanism of DBS is still unclear. In this review, we discuss the history of DBS, the anatomy and internal architecture of the basal ganglia (BG), the abnormal pathological changes of the BG in PD, and how computational models can help understand and advance DBS. We also describe two types of models: mathematical theoretical models and clinical predictive models. Mathematical theoretical models simulate neurons or neural networks of BG to shed light on the mechanistic principle underlying DBS, while clinical predictive models focus more on patients' outcomes, helping to adapt treatment plans for each patient and advance novel electrode designs. Finally, we provide insights and an outlook on future technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongtong Wu
- School of Mathematics, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Kejia Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Center for Functional Neurosurgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shenquan Liu
- School of Mathematics, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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2
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Heffernan KS, Rahman K, Smith Y, Galvan A. Characterization of the GfaABC1D Promoter to Selectively Target Astrocytes in the Rhesus Macaque Brain. J Neurosci Methods 2022; 372:109530. [PMID: 35202614 PMCID: PMC8940704 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2022.109530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The study of astrocytic functions in non-human primates (NHPs) has been hampered by the lack of genetic tools to selectively target astrocytes. Viral vectors with selective and efficient transduction of astrocytes could be a potent tool to express marker proteins, modulators, or sensors in NHP astrocytes, but the availability of thoroughly characterized astrocytic selective promoter sequences to use in these species remains extremely limited. NEW METHOD We describe the specificity and efficiency of an astrocyte-specific promoter, GfaABC1D in the brain of the rhesus macaque, with emphasis in basal ganglia regions. AAV5-pZac2.1-GfaABC1D-tdTomato was locally injected into the globus pallidus external segment (GPe) and putamen. The extent, efficiency, and specificity of transduction was analyzed with immunohistochemistry at the light and electron microscope levels. RESULTS The GfaABC1D promoter directed the expression of tdTomato in an astrocyte-specific manner in directly or indirectly targeted regions (including both segments of the globus pallidus, putamen, subthalamic nucleus and cortex). COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS Due to its small size, the GfaABC1D promoter is advantageous over other previously used glial fibrillary acidic protein-based promoter sequences, facilitating its use to drive expression of various transgenes in adeno-associated viruses (AAV) or other viral vectors. CONCLUSION GfaABC1D is an efficient promoter that selectively targets astrocytes in the monkey basal ganglia and expands the viral vector toolbox to study astrocytic functions in non-human primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate S Heffernan
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurological Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kazi Rahman
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurological Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yoland Smith
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurological Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Udall Center of Excellence for Parkinson's Disease Research, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Adriana Galvan
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurological Disorders, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Udall Center of Excellence for Parkinson's Disease Research, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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3
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Miyamoto Y, Fukuda T. The habenula-targeting neurons in the mouse entopeduncular nucleus contain not only somatostatin-positive neurons but also nitric oxide synthase-positive neurons. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 226:1497-1510. [PMID: 33787995 PMCID: PMC8096748 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02264-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The entopeduncular nucleus (EPN) in rodents is one of the two major output nuclei of the basal ganglia and corresponds to the internal segment of the globus pallidus in primates. Previous studies have shown that the EPN contains three types of neurons that project to different targets, namely, parvalbumin (PV)-, somatostatin (SOM)-, and choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons. However, we have recently reported that neurons lacking immunoreactivities for these substances are present in the EPN. Here, we demonstrate that 27.7% of all EPN neurons showed immunoreactivity for nitric oxide synthase (NOS). Among them, NOS-only positive and NOS/SOM double-positive neurons accounted for 20.1% and 6.8%, respectively, whereas NOS/PV double-positive neurons were rarely observed. NOS-containing neurons were distributed in a shell region surrounding the thalamus-targeting, PV-rich core region of the EPN, especially in the ventromedial part of the shell. The retrograde tracer fluoro-gold (FG) was injected into several target regions of EPN neurons. Among FG-labeled EPN neurons after injection into the lateral habenula (LHb), NOS-only positive, NOS/SOM double-positive, and SOM-only positive neurons accounted for 25.7%, 15.2%, and 59.1%, respectively. We conclude that NOS-positive neurons are the second major population of LHb-targeting EPN neurons, suggesting their possible involvement in behaviors in response to aversive stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Miyamoto
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Honjo 1-1-1, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
| | - Takaichi Fukuda
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Honjo 1-1-1, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan.
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Spike discharge characteristic of the caudal mesencephalic reticular formation and pedunculopontine nucleus in MPTP-induced primate model of Parkinson disease. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 128:40-48. [PMID: 30086388 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) included in the caudal mesencephalic reticular formation (cMRF) plays a key role in the control of locomotion and wake state. Regarding its involvement in the neurodegenerative process observed in Parkinson disease (PD), deep brain stimulation of the PPN was proposed to treat levodopa-resistant gait disorders. However, the precise role of the cMRF in the pathophysiology of PD, particularly in freezing of gait and other non-motor symptoms is still not clear. Here, using micro electrode recording (MER) in 2 primates, we show that dopamine depletion did not alter the mean firing rate of the overall cMRF neurons, particularly the putative non-cholinergic ones, but only a decreased activity of the regular neurons sub-group (though to be the cholinergic PPN neurons). Interestingly, a significant increase in the relative proportion of cMRF neurons with a burst pattern discharge was observed after MPTP intoxication. The present results question the hypothesis of an over-inhibition of the CMRF by the basal ganglia output structures in PD. The decreased activity observed in the regular neurons could explain some non-motor symptoms in PD regarding the strong involvement of the cholinergic neurons on the modulation of the thalamo-cortical system. The increased burst activity under dopamine depletion confirms that this specific spike discharge pattern activity also observed in other basal ganglia nuclei and in different pathologies could play a mojor role in the pathophysiology of the disease and could explain several symptoms of PD including the freezing of gait. The present data will have to be replicated in a larger number of animals and will have to investigate more in details how the modification of the spike discharge of the cMRF neurons in the parkinsonian state could alter functions such as locomotion and attentional state. This will ultimely allow a better comprehension of the pathophysiology of freezing of gait.
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Abstract
Basal ganglia interact in a complex way which is still not completely understood. The model generally used to explain basal ganglia interactions is based on experimental data in animals, but its validation in humans has been hampered by methodological restrictions. The time-relationship (partial correlation) of the fluctuations of the blood-oxygen-level-dependent signals recorded in the main basal ganglia was used here (32 healthy volunteers; 18-72 years of age; 16 males and 16 females) to test whether the interaction of the main basal ganglia in humans follows the pattern of functional connectivity in animals. Data showed that most basal ganglia have a functional connectivity which is compatible with that of the established closed-loop model. The strength of the connectivity of some basal ganglia changed with finger motion, suggesting that the functional interactions between basal ganglia are quickly restructured by the motor tasks. The present study with the motor cortico-BG loop centers supports the circling dynamic of the basal ganglia model in humans, showing that motor tasks may change the functional connectivity of these centers.
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On the Role of the Pedunculopontine Nucleus and Mesencephalic Reticular Formation in Locomotion in Nonhuman Primates. J Neurosci 2017; 36:4917-29. [PMID: 27147647 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2514-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF) is formed by the pedunculopontine and cuneiform nuclei, two neuronal structures thought to be key elements in the supraspinal control of locomotion, muscle tone, waking, and REM sleep. The role of MRF has also been advocated in modulation of state of arousal leading to transition from wakefulness to sleep and it is further considered to be a main player in the pathophysiology of gait disorders seen in Parkinson's disease. However, the existence of a mesencephalic locomotor region and of an arousal center has not yet been demonstrated in primates. Here, we provide the first extensive electrophysiological mapping of the MRF using extracellular recordings at rest and during locomotion in a nonhuman primate (NHP) (Macaca fascicularis) model of bipedal locomotion. We found different neuronal populations that discharged according to a phasic or a tonic mode in response to locomotion, supporting the existence of a locomotor neuronal circuit within these MRF in behaving primates. Altogether, these data constitute the first electrophysiological characterization of a locomotor neuronal system present within the MRF in behaving NHPs under normal conditions, in accordance with several studies done in different experimental animal models. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We provide the first extensive electrophysiological mapping of the two major components of the mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF), namely the pedunculopontine and cuneiform nuclei. We exploited a nonhuman primate (NHP) model of bipedal locomotion with extracellular recordings in behaving NHPs at rest and during locomotion. Different MRF neuronal groups were found to respond to locomotion, with phasic or tonic patterns of response. These data constitute the first electrophysiological evidences of a locomotor neuronal system within the MRF in behaving NHPs.
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Rodriguez-Sabate C, Morales I, Sanchez A, Rodriguez M. The Multiple Correspondence Analysis Method and Brain Functional Connectivity: Its Application to the Study of the Non-linear Relationships of Motor Cortex and Basal Ganglia. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:345. [PMID: 28676738 PMCID: PMC5477566 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The complexity of basal ganglia (BG) interactions is often condensed into simple models mainly based on animal data and that present BG in closed-loop cortico-subcortical circuits of excitatory/inhibitory pathways which analyze the incoming cortical data and return the processed information to the cortex. This study was aimed at identifying functional relationships in the BG motor-loop of 24 healthy-subjects who provided written, informed consent and whose BOLD-activity was recorded by MRI methods. The analysis of the functional interaction between these centers by correlation techniques and multiple linear regression showed non-linear relationships which cannot be suitably addressed with these methods. The multiple correspondence analysis (MCA), an unsupervised multivariable procedure which can identify non-linear interactions, was used to study the functional connectivity of BG when subjects were at rest. Linear methods showed different functional interactions expected according to current BG models. MCA showed additional functional interactions which were not evident when using lineal methods. Seven functional configurations of BG were identified with MCA, two involving the primary motor and somatosensory cortex, one involving the deepest BG (external-internal globus pallidum, subthalamic nucleus and substantia nigral), one with the input-output BG centers (putamen and motor thalamus), two linking the input-output centers with other BG (external pallidum and subthalamic nucleus), and one linking the external pallidum and the substantia nigral. The results provide evidence that the non-linear MCA and linear methods are complementary and should be best used in conjunction to more fully understand the nature of functional connectivity of brain centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Rodriguez-Sabate
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Experimental Neurology, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of La LagunaTenerife, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades NeurodegenerativasTenerife, Spain
| | - Ingrid Morales
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Experimental Neurology, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of La LagunaTenerife, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades NeurodegenerativasTenerife, Spain
| | - Alberto Sanchez
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades NeurodegenerativasTenerife, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology and Physical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of La LagunaTenerife, Spain
| | - Manuel Rodriguez
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Experimental Neurology, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of La LagunaTenerife, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades NeurodegenerativasTenerife, Spain
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Münte TF, Marco-Pallares J, Bolat S, Heldmann M, Lütjens G, Nager W, Müller-Vahl K, Krauss JK. The human globus pallidus internus is sensitive to rewards – Evidence from intracerebral recordings. Brain Stimul 2017; 10:657-663. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Revised: 12/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Singh‐Bains MK, Waldvogel HJ, Faull RLM. The role of the human globus pallidus in Huntington's disease. Brain Pathol 2016; 26:741-751. [PMID: 27529459 PMCID: PMC8029019 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is characterized by pronounced pathology of the basal ganglia, with numerous studies documenting the pattern of striatal neurodegeneration in the human brain. However, a principle target of striatal outflow, the globus pallidus (GP), has received limited attention in comparison, despite being a core component of the basal ganglia. The external segment (GPe) is a major output of the dorsal striatum, connecting widely to other basal ganglia nuclei via the indirect motor pathway. The internal segment (GPi) is a final output station of both the direct and indirect motor pathways of the basal ganglia. The ventral pallidum (VP), in contrast, is a primary output of the limbic ventral striatum. Currently, there is a lack of consensus in the literature regarding the extent of GPe and GPi neurodegeneration in HD, with a conflict between pallidal neurons being preserved, and pallidal neurons being lost. In addition, no current evidence considers the fate of the VP in HD, despite it being a key structure involved in reward and motivation. Understanding the involvement of these structures in HD will help to determine their involvement in basal ganglia pathway dysfunction in the disease. A clear understanding of the impact of striatal projection loss on the main neurons that receive striatal input, the pallidal neurons, will aid in the understanding of disease pathogenesis. In addition, a clearer picture of pallidal involvement in HD may contribute to providing a morphological basis to the considerable variability in the types of motor, behavioral, and cognitive symptoms in HD. This review aims to highlight the importance of the globus pallidus, a critical component of the cortical-basal ganglia circuits, and its role in the pathogenesis of HD. This review also summarizes the current literature relating to human studies of the globus pallidus in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malvindar K. Singh‐Bains
- Centre for Brain Research, University of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
- Department of Anatomy with Medical ImagingUniversity of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
| | - Henry J. Waldvogel
- Centre for Brain Research, University of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
- Department of Anatomy with Medical ImagingUniversity of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
| | - Richard L. M. Faull
- Centre for Brain Research, University of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
- Department of Anatomy with Medical ImagingUniversity of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
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10
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Wichmann T, DeLong MR. Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders of Basal Ganglia Origin: Restoring Function or Functionality? Neurotherapeutics 2016; 13:264-83. [PMID: 26956115 PMCID: PMC4824026 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-016-0426-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is highly effective for both hypo- and hyperkinetic movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. The clinical use of DBS is, in part, empiric, based on the experience with prior surgical ablative therapies for these disorders, and, in part, driven by scientific discoveries made decades ago. In this review, we consider anatomical and functional concepts of the basal ganglia relevant to our understanding of DBS mechanisms, as well as our current understanding of the pathophysiology of two of the most commonly DBS-treated conditions, Parkinson's disease and dystonia. Finally, we discuss the proposed mechanism(s) of action of DBS in restoring function in patients with movement disorders. The signs and symptoms of the various disorders appear to result from signature disordered activity in the basal ganglia output, which disrupts the activity in thalamocortical and brainstem networks. The available evidence suggests that the effects of DBS are strongly dependent on targeting sensorimotor portions of specific nodes of the basal ganglia-thalamocortical motor circuit, that is, the subthalamic nucleus and the internal segment of the globus pallidus. There is little evidence to suggest that DBS in patients with movement disorders restores normal basal ganglia functions (e.g., their role in movement or reinforcement learning). Instead, it appears that high-frequency DBS replaces the abnormal basal ganglia output with a more tolerable pattern, which helps to restore the functionality of downstream networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wichmann
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Mahlon R DeLong
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Sizemore RJ, Seeger-Armbruster S, Hughes SM, Parr-Brownlie LC. Viral vector-based tools advance knowledge of basal ganglia anatomy and physiology. J Neurophysiol 2016; 115:2124-46. [PMID: 26888111 PMCID: PMC4869490 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01131.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral vectors were originally developed to deliver genes into host cells for therapeutic potential. However, viral vector use in neuroscience research has increased because they enhance interpretation of the anatomy and physiology of brain circuits compared with conventional tract tracing or electrical stimulation techniques. Viral vectors enable neuronal or glial subpopulations to be labeled or stimulated, which can be spatially restricted to a single target nucleus or pathway. Here we review the use of viral vectors to examine the structure and function of motor and limbic basal ganglia (BG) networks in normal and pathological states. We outline the use of viral vectors, particularly lentivirus and adeno-associated virus, in circuit tracing, optogenetic stimulation, and designer drug stimulation experiments. Key studies that have used viral vectors to trace and image pathways and connectivity at gross or ultrastructural levels are reviewed. We explain how optogenetic stimulation and designer drugs used to modulate a distinct pathway and neuronal subpopulation have enhanced our mechanistic understanding of BG function in health and pathophysiology in disease. Finally, we outline how viral vector technology may be applied to neurological and psychiatric conditions to offer new treatments with enhanced outcomes for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel J Sizemore
- Department of Anatomy, Otago School of Medical Sciences, Brain Health Research Centre, Brain Research New Zealand, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Sonja Seeger-Armbruster
- Department of Physiology, Otago School of Medical Sciences, Brain Health Research Centre, Brain Research New Zealand, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; and
| | - Stephanie M Hughes
- Department of Biochemistry, Otago School of Medical Sciences, Brain Health Research Centre, Brain Research New Zealand, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Louise C Parr-Brownlie
- Department of Anatomy, Otago School of Medical Sciences, Brain Health Research Centre, Brain Research New Zealand, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand;
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12
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Eid L, Parent M. Chemical anatomy of pallidal afferents in primates. Brain Struct Funct 2016; 221:4291-4317. [PMID: 27028222 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-016-1216-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neurons of the globus pallidus receive massive inputs from the striatum and the subthalamic nucleus, but their activity, as well as those of their striatal and subthalamic inputs, are modulated by brainstem afferents. These include serotonin (5-HT) projections from the dorsal raphe nucleus, cholinergic (ACh) inputs from the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, and dopamine (DA) afferents from the substantia nigra pars compacta. This review summarizes our recent findings on the distribution, quantitative and ultrastructural aspects of pallidal 5-HT, ACh and DA innervations. These results have led to the elaboration of a new model of the pallidal neuron based on a precise knowledge of the hierarchy and chemical features of the various synaptic inputs. The dense 5-HT, ACh and DA innervations disclosed in the associative and limbic pallidal territories suggest that these brainstem inputs contribute principally to the planification of motor behaviors and the regulation of attention and mood. Although 5-HT, ACh and DA inputs were found to modulate pallidal neurons and their afferents mainly through asynaptic (volume) transmission, genuine synaptic contacts occur between these chemospecific axon varicosities and pallidal dendrites, revealing that these brainstem projections have a direct access to pallidal neurons, in addition to their indirect input through the striatum and subthalamic nucleus. Altogether, these findings reveal that the brainstem 5-HT, ACh and DA pallidal afferents act in concert with the more robust GABAergic inhibitory striatopallidal and glutamatergic excitatory subthalamopallidal inputs. We hypothesize that a fragile equilibrium between forebrain and brainstem pallidal afferents plays a key role in the functional organization of the primate basal ganglia, in both health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Eid
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec (CRIUSMQ), Université Laval, F-6530-1, 2601, de la Canardière, Quebec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada
| | - Martin Parent
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Québec (CRIUSMQ), Université Laval, F-6530-1, 2601, de la Canardière, Quebec, QC, G1J 2G3, Canada.
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13
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Chib VS, Yun K, Takahashi H, Shimojo S. Noninvasive remote activation of the ventral midbrain by transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex. Transl Psychiatry 2013; 3:e268. [PMID: 23756377 PMCID: PMC3693403 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2013.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The midbrain lies deep within the brain and has an important role in reward, motivation, movement and the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, depression and addiction. To date, the primary means of acting on this region has been with pharmacological interventions or implanted electrodes. Here we introduce a new noninvasive brain stimulation technique that exploits the highly interconnected nature of the midbrain and prefrontal cortex to stimulate deep brain regions. Using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the prefrontal cortex, we were able to remotely activate the interconnected midbrain and cause increases in participants' appraisals of facial attractiveness. Participants with more enhanced prefrontal/midbrain connectivity following stimulation exhibited greater increases in attractiveness ratings. These results illustrate that noninvasive direct stimulation of prefrontal cortex can induce neural activity in the distally connected midbrain, which directly effects behavior. Furthermore, these results suggest that this tDCS protocol could provide a promising approach to modulate midbrain functions that are disrupted in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- V S Chib
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 19128, USA.
| | - K Yun
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA,Computation and Neural Systems, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - H Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan,Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Japan
| | - S Shimojo
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA,Computation and Neural Systems, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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14
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Franz EA. The allocation of attention to learning of goal-directed actions: a cognitive neuroscience framework focusing on the Basal Ganglia. Front Psychol 2012; 3:535. [PMID: 23267335 PMCID: PMC3527823 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present paper builds on the idea that attention is largely in service of our actions. A framework and model which captures the allocation of attention for learning of goal-directed actions is proposed and developed. This framework highlights an evolutionary model based on the notion that rudimentary functions of the basal ganglia have become embedded into increasingly higher levels of networks which all contribute to adaptive learning. Supporting the proposed model, background literature is presented alongside key evidence based on experimental studies in the so-called "split-brain" (surgically divided cerebral hemispheres), and selected evidence from related areas of research. Although overlap with other existing findings and models is acknowledged, the proposed framework is an original synthesis of cognitive experimental findings with supporting evidence of a neural system and a carefully formulated model of attention. It is the hope that this new synthesis will be informative in fields of cognition and other fields of brain sciences and will lead to new avenues for experimentation across domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. A. Franz
- Division of Science, Department of Psychology, University of OtagoDunedin, New Zealand
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15
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Tripathi A, Prensa L, Mengual E. Axonal branching patterns of ventral pallidal neurons in the rat. Brain Struct Funct 2012; 218:1133-57. [PMID: 22932869 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-012-0451-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/10/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The ventral pallidum (VP) is a key component of the cortico-basal ganglia circuits that process motivational and emotional information, and also a crucial site for reward. Although the main targets of the two VP compartments, medial (VPm) and lateral (VPl) have already been established, the collateralization patterns of individual axons have not previously been investigated. Here we have fully traced eighty-four axons from VPm, VPl and the rostral extension of VP into the olfactory tubercle (VPr), using the anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine in the rat. Thirty to fifty percent of axons originating from VPm and VPr collateralized in the mediodorsal thalamic nucleus and lateral habenula, indicating a close association between the ventral basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop and the reward network at the single axon level. Additional collateralization of these axons in diverse components of the extended amygdala and corticopetal system supports a multisystem integration that may take place at the basal forebrain. Remarkably, we did not find evidence for a sharp segregation in the targets of axons arising from the two VP compartments, as VPl axons frequently collateralized in the caudal lateral hypothalamus and ventral tegmental area, the well-known targets of VPm, while VPm axons, in turn, also collateralized in typical VPl targets such as the subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra pars compacta and reticulata, and retrorubral field. Nevertheless, VPl and VPm displayed collateralization patterns that paralleled those of dorsal pallidal components, confirming at the single axon level the parallel organization of functionally different basal ganglia loops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anushree Tripathi
- Division of Neurosciences, Center for Applied Medical Research-CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Avda. Pío XII 55, 31008 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
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16
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Rommelfanger KS, Wichmann T. Extrastriatal dopaminergic circuits of the Basal Ganglia. Front Neuroanat 2010; 4:139. [PMID: 21103009 PMCID: PMC2987554 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2010.00139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2010] [Accepted: 09/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The basal ganglia are comprised of the striatum, the external and internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPe and GPi, respectively), the subthalamic nucleus (STN), and the substantia nigra pars compacta and reticulata (SNc and SNr, respectively). Dopamine has long been identified as an important modulator of basal ganglia function in the striatum, and disturbances of striatal dopaminergic transmission have been implicated in diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD), addiction and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. However, recent evidence suggests that dopamine may also modulate basal ganglia function at sites outside of the striatum, and that changes in dopaminergic transmission at these sites may contribute to the symptoms of PD and other neuropsychiatric disorders. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the anatomy, functional effects and behavioral consequences of the dopaminergic innervation to the GPe, GPi, STN, and SNr. Further insights into the dopaminergic modulation of basal ganglia function at extrastriatal sites may provide us with opportunities to develop new and more specific strategies for treating disorders of basal ganglia dysfunction.
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17
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High-frequency microstimulation in human globus pallidus and substantia nigra. Exp Brain Res 2010; 205:251-61. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2362-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2010] [Accepted: 07/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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18
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Rivlin-Etzion M, Elias S, Heimer G, Bergman H. Computational physiology of the basal ganglia in Parkinson’s disease. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2010; 183:259-73. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(10)83013-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Haber SN, Knutson B. The reward circuit: linking primate anatomy and human imaging. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35:4-26. [PMID: 19812543 PMCID: PMC3055449 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2009.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2434] [Impact Index Per Article: 173.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2009] [Revised: 08/01/2009] [Accepted: 08/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although cells in many brain regions respond to reward, the cortical-basal ganglia circuit is at the heart of the reward system. The key structures in this network are the anterior cingulate cortex, the orbital prefrontal cortex, the ventral striatum, the ventral pallidum, and the midbrain dopamine neurons. In addition, other structures, including the dorsal prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and lateral habenular nucleus, and specific brainstem structures such as the pedunculopontine nucleus, and the raphe nucleus, are key components in regulating the reward circuit. Connectivity between these areas forms a complex neural network that mediates different aspects of reward processing. Advances in neuroimaging techniques allow better spatial and temporal resolution. These studies now demonstrate that human functional and structural imaging results map increasingly close to primate anatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne N Haber
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester School of Medicine, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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20
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Payoux P, Remy P, Miloudi M, Houeto JL, Stadler C, Bejjani BP, Yelnik J, Samson Y, Rascol O, Agid Y, Damier P. Contrasting changes in cortical activation induced by acute high-frequency stimulation within the globus pallidus in Parkinson's disease. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2009; 29:235-43. [PMID: 18781162 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2008.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Continuous stimulation of the globus pallidus (GP) has been shown to be an effective treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD). We used the fact that the implanted quadripolar leads contain electrodes within the GPi and GPe to investigate the clinical effects of acute high-frequency stimulation applied in these nuclei and changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) as an index of synaptic activity. In five patients treated by chronic GP stimulation, we compared the effects on PD symptoms and the changes in rCBF at rest and during paced right-hand movements, with and without left GPe or GPi stimulation. Although improving contralateral rigidity and akinesia, left GPe stimulation decreased rCBF in the left cerebellum and lateral premotor cortex at rest and significantly increased it in the left primary sensorimotor cortex (SM1) during movement. In contrast, left ventral GPi stimulation, which improved rigidity and worsened akinesia, decreased rCBF in the left SM1, premotor area, anterior cingulum, and supplementary motor area but did not modify the movement-related activation. GPe stimulation seems to result in a reduced activity of motor-related areas and the facilitation of motor cortex activation during movement, the latter component being absent during GPi stimulation, and this may explain the observed worsening of akinesia.
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21
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The globus pallidus sends reward-related signals to the lateral habenula. Neuron 2009; 60:720-9. [PMID: 19038227 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2008] [Revised: 08/25/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
As a major output station of the basal ganglia, the globus pallidus internal segment (GPi) projects to the thalamus and brainstem nuclei thereby controlling motor behavior. A less well known fact is that the GPi also projects to the lateral habenula (LHb) which is often associated with the limbic system. Using the monkey performing a saccade task with positionally biased reward outcomes, we found that antidromically identified LHb-projecting neurons were distributed mainly in the dorsal and ventral borders of the GPi and that their activity was strongly modulated by expected reward outcomes. A majority of them were excited by the no-reward-predicting target and inhibited by the reward-predicting target. These reward-dependent modulations were similar to those in LHb neurons but started earlier than those in LHb neurons. These results suggest that GPi may initiate reward-related signals through its effects on the LHb, which then influences the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems.
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Tisch S, Rothwell JC, Zrinzo L, Bhatia KP, Hariz M, Limousin P. Cortical evoked potentials from pallidal stimulation in patients with primary generalized dystonia. Mov Disord 2008; 23:265-73. [PMID: 18044698 DOI: 10.1002/mds.21835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of globus pallidus internus (GPi) has emerged as an effective treatment for primary generalized dystonia. However, the physiological mechanisms of improvement are not fully understood. Cortical activity in response to pallidal stimulation was recorded in 6 patients with primary generalized dystonia >6 months after bilateral GPi DBS. Scalp electroencephalogram was recorded using 60 surface electrodes during 10 Hz bipolar pallidal DBS at each electrode contact pair. Anatomical position of the electrode contacts in relation to the GPi, medial medullary lamina and globus pallidus externus (GPe) was determined from the postoperative stereotactic MRI. In all six patients an evoked potential (EP) was observed with average onset latency of 10.9 ms +/- 0.77, peak latency 26.6 ms +/- 1.6, distributed mainly over the ipsilateral hemisphere, maximal centrally. The mean amplitude of this potential was larger with stimulation in posteroventral GPi than in GPe (3.36 microV vs. 0.50 microV, P < 0.0001). The EP was absent in one patient-side, ipsilateral to a previous thalamotomy. Low frequency GPi stimulation produces an EP distributed centrally over the ipsilateral hemisphere. The latency and distribution of the EP are consistent with stimulation of pallidothalamic neurons projecting to the sensorimotor cortex. Because the EP is larger and more consistently present with stimulation of posteroventral GPi than GPe, it may provide a physiological tool to identify contacts within the optimal surgical target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Tisch
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom.
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23
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Di Martino A, Scheres A, Margulies DS, Kelly AMC, Uddin LQ, Shehzad Z, Biswal B, Walters JR, Castellanos FX, Milham MP. Functional connectivity of human striatum: a resting state FMRI study. Cereb Cortex 2008; 18:2735-47. [PMID: 18400794 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhn041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 846] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Classically regarded as motor structures, the basal ganglia subserve a wide range of functions, including motor, cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes. Consistent with this broad-reaching involvement in brain function, basal ganglia dysfunction has been implicated in numerous neurological and psychiatric disorders. Despite recent advances in human neuroimaging, models of basal ganglia circuitry continue to rely primarily upon inference from animal studies. Here, we provide a comprehensive functional connectivity analysis of basal ganglia circuitry in humans through a functional magnetic resonance imaging examination during rest. Voxelwise regression analyses substantiated the hypothesized motor, cognitive, and affective divisions among striatal subregions, and provided in vivo evidence of a functional organization consistent with parallel and integrative loop models described in animals. Our findings also revealed subtler distinctions within striatal subregions not previously appreciated by task-based imaging approaches. For instance, the inferior ventral striatum is functionally connected with medial portions of orbitofrontal cortex, whereas a more superior ventral striatal seed is associated with medial and lateral portions. The ability to map multiple distinct striatal circuits in a single study in humans, as opposed to relying on meta-analyses of multiple studies, is a principal strength of resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging. This approach holds promise for studying basal ganglia dysfunction in clinical disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Di Martino
- Phyllis Green and Randolph Cowen Institute for Pediatric Neuroscience, NYU Child Study Center, New York, NY 10016, USA
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Grill WM, Cantrell MB, Robertson MS. Antidromic propagation of action potentials in branched axons: implications for the mechanisms of action of deep brain stimulation. J Comput Neurosci 2007; 24:81-93. [PMID: 17562157 DOI: 10.1007/s10827-007-0043-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2006] [Revised: 04/17/2007] [Accepted: 04/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Electrical stimulation of the central nervous system creates both orthodromically propagating action potentials, by stimulation of local cells and passing axons, and antidromically propagating action potentials, by stimulation of presynaptic axons and terminals. Our aim was to understand how antidromic action potentials navigate through complex arborizations, such as those of thalamic and basal ganglia afferents-sites of electrical activation during deep brain stimulation. We developed computational models to study the propagation of antidromic action potentials past the bifurcation in branched axons. In both unmyelinated and myelinated branched axons, when the diameters of each axon branch remained under a specific threshold (set by the antidromic geometric ratio), antidromic propagation occurred robustly; action potentials traveled both antidromically into the primary segment as well as "re-orthodromically" into the terminal secondary segment. Propagation occurred across a broad range of stimulation frequencies, axon segment geometries, and concentrations of extracellular potassium, but was strongly dependent on the geometry of the node of Ranvier at the axonal bifurcation. Thus, antidromic activation of axon terminals can, through axon collaterals, lead to widespread activation or inhibition of targets remote from the site of stimulation. These effects should be included when interpreting the results of functional imaging or evoked potential studies on the mechanisms of action of DBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren M Grill
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 136 Hudson Hall, Box 90281, Durham, NC 27708-0281, USA.
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25
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Abstract
The internal segment of the globus pallidus (GP(i)) gathers many bits of information including movement-related activity from the striatum, external segment of the globus pallidus (GP(e)), and subthalamic nucleus (STN), and integrates them. The GP(i) receives rich GABAergic inputs from the striatum and GP(e), and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors are distributed in the GP(i) in a specific manner. Thus, inputs from the striatum and GP(e) may control GP(i) activity in a different way. The GP(i) finally conveys processed information outside the basal ganglia. Changes in GABAergic neurotransmission have been reported in movement disorders and suggested to play an important role in the pathophysiology of the symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Nambu
- Division of System Neurophysiology, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, 38 Nishigo-naka, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan.
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Kita H, Chiken S, Tachibana Y, Nambu A. Origins of GABA(A) and GABA(B) receptor-mediated responses of globus pallidus induced after stimulation of the putamen in the monkey. J Neurosci 2006; 26:6554-62. [PMID: 16775143 PMCID: PMC6674022 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1543-06.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The external and internal segments of the pallidum (GPe and GPi) receive heavy GABAergic innervations from the neostriatum, an input nucleus of the basal ganglia. The GPe neurons provide another major GABAergic innervation to the GPe itself and GPi. Although these GABAergic inputs are considered to play key roles in controlling the level and pattern of firing activity of pallidal neurons in both normal and pathophysiological conditions, these inputs have not been well characterized in vivo. Here, we characterized the responses of pallidal neurons to single and burst stimulation of the putamen (Put) in awake monkeys. Unit recordings in combination with local infusion of drugs and a chemical blockade of the subthalamic nucleus (STN), the major origin of excitatory afferents, revealed the following. Under STN blockade, the duration of single Put stimulation induced gabazine (a GABA(A) antagonist)-sensitive responses differed greatly in the GPe ( approximately 400 ms long) and in the GPi (60 ms long). Burst stimulation of the Put induced CGP55845 [(2S)-3-[[(1S)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)ethyl]amino-2-hydroxypropyl](phenylmethyl)phosphinic acid] (a GABA(B) antagonist)-sensitive responses in the GPe and GPi. However, the data suggested that the origin of the GABA(B) responses was the GPe, not the Put. Local CGP55845 application increased the spontaneous firing of GPe and GPi neurons, suggesting that GABA released from the axons of GPe neurons effectively activates GABA(B) receptors in the GPe and GPi and contributes significantly to the control of the level of neuronal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Kita
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA.
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27
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Kita H, Tachibana Y, Nambu A, Chiken S. Balance of monosynaptic excitatory and disynaptic inhibitory responses of the globus pallidus induced after stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in the monkey. J Neurosci 2006; 25:8611-9. [PMID: 16177028 PMCID: PMC6725523 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1719-05.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The subthalamic nucleus (STN) plays a pivotal role in controlling the activity of both the external and internal segments of the globus pallidus (GPe and GPi, respectively). Both nuclei receive monosynaptic excitatory and disynaptic GPe-mediated inhibitory inputs from the STN. Thus, we investigated the balance of these antagonistic inputs that may determine the overall response of pallidum to STN activation in monkeys. Single stimulation of the STN evoked a short-latency excitation followed by a weak inhibition in GPe neurons and a short-latency, very short-duration excitation followed by a strong inhibition in GPi neurons. Burst high-frequency stimulation (BHFS) (10 stimuli with 100 Hz) of the STN (STN-BHFS) evoked powerful excitatory responses in GPe neurons. Local injection of a mixture of 1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydro-6-nitro-2, 3-dioxobenzo[f]quinoxaline-7-sulfonamide (NBQX; AMPA/kainate receptor blocker) and 3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)-propyl-1-phosphonic acid (CPP; NMDA receptor blocker) greatly diminished or abolished excitatory responses to the STN stimulation. In contrast to the GPe, STN-BHFS evoked a predominantly inhibitory response in GPi neurons. The inhibition could be blocked either by a local application of the GABAA receptor antagonist gabazine or by an injection of an NBQX/CPP/gabazine mixture into the GPe. STN-BHFS induced weak excitatory or inhibitory responses in a small number of phasically active putamen neurons. These data suggest that with single stimulation and during STN-BHFS, the STN-GPe excitatory response dominates over the STN-GPe-GPe recurrent inhibition in the GPe, whereas the STN-GPe-GPi inhibitory response dominates over the STN-GPi excitatory response in the GPi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Kita
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA.
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28
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Postuma RB, Dagher A. Basal ganglia functional connectivity based on a meta-analysis of 126 positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging publications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 16:1508-21. [PMID: 16373457 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhj088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 459] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The striatum receives projections from the entire cerebral cortex. Different, but not mutually exclusive, models of corticostriatal connectivity have been proposed, including connectivity based on proximity, parallel loops, and a model of a tripartite division of the striatum into motor, associative, and limbic areas. All these models were largely based on studies of anatomic connectivity in nonhuman mammals and lesion studies in animals and humans. Functional neuroimaging has the potential to discern patterns of functional connectivity in humans in vivo. We analyzed the functional connectivity between the cortex and the striatum in a meta-analysis of 126 published functional neuroimaging studies. We mapped the peak activations listed in each publication into stereotaxic space and used standard functional imaging statistical methods to determine which cortical areas were most likely to coactivate with different parts of the striatum. The patterns of functional connectivity between the cortex and the different striatal nuclei are broadly consistent with the predictions of the parallel loop model. The rostrocaudal and dorsoventral patterns of corticostriatal functional connectivity are consistent with the tripartite division of the striatum into motor, associative, and limbic zones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald B Postuma
- Montreal Neurological Institute, Montreal General Hospital, McGill University, 3801 University Street Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
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29
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Abstract
In this article, I review a series of my experiments on the role of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (Ppn) in voluntary movements. I sought to elucidate the functional role of the Ppn in the control of voluntary movements using macaque monkeys. I propose a functional model of basal ganglia circuitry in which I emphasize the role of the Ppn and discuss the underlying mechanisms of parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Matsumura
- Neuroscience and Neurosurgery, Chuo Gunma Neurosurgery Hospital, 64-1,Nakao-machi, Takasaki, Gunma, 370-0001, Japan.
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30
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Parent M, Parent A. The pallidofugal motor fiber system in primates. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2004; 10:203-11. [PMID: 15120094 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2004.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2004] [Revised: 02/09/2004] [Accepted: 02/10/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The organization of the pallidofugal fiber system originating from the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi) in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) was studied by means of a single-axon tracing method. The primate GPi is composed of a majority of neurons endowed with a highly collateralized axon that projects to the premotor neurons located in the ventral tier thalamic nuclei, the center-médian/parafascicular thalamic complex and the brainstem pedunculopontine nucleus. These axons often follow a long and tortuous course within the GPi and then emerge either through the ansa lenticularis (AL) or the lenticular fasciculus (LF), irrespective of the location of their parent cell body in the GPi. Other pallidofugal axons exit through the medial pole of the GPi, at various distances between the AL ventrally and the LF dorsally. Virtually all pallidofugal axons course through Forel's field H, on their way to the thalamus and brainstem. They emit numerous short collaterals and boutons en passant in this sector of the subthalamic region, which stands out as a major target of GPi axons. Our results indicate that AL and LF do not form separate anatomical entities, each carrying axons originating from distinct functional pallidal territories, as commonly believed. Instead, these two fascicles form the ventral and dorsal borders of a morphological continuum that harbors a multitude of pallidofugal axons arising from all sectors of the GPi. This type of information should be taken into account when interpreting data from deep brain stimulation applied to pallidal and subthalamic regions in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Parent
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie Systémique, Centre de Recherche, Université Laval Robert-Giffard, 2601 Chemin de la Canardière, Local F-6500 Beauport, Quebec, Canada, G1J 2G3
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31
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Handy TC, Gazzaniga MS, Ivry RB. Cortical and subcortical contributions to the representation of temporal information. Neuropsychologia 2003; 41:1461-73. [PMID: 12849764 DOI: 10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00093-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Converging evidence suggests that temporal representations of brief durations are derived subcortically. We tested split-brain patient JW in order to investigate whether these representations project bilaterally or unilaterally to cortex. Using visual stimuli to signal time intervals, JW was asked to compare the duration of a pair of standard stimuli that were presented bilaterally with a comparison stimulus that was presented to either the left or right visual field. Assuming the hand of response is controlled by the contralateral cerebral hemisphere, a hand by visual field interaction was predicted if the representation of stimulus duration was restricted to the cerebral hemisphere receiving the lateralized stimulus. However, we failed to observe this interaction for two different ranges of stimulus durations, both in the hundred (Experiment 2) to hundreds (Experiment 1) of milliseconds range. Instead, there was a consistent right hemisphere advantage in task performance. When the task then required a discrimination based on the physical size of the stimuli rather than their duration, an interaction between response hand and visual field was obtained (Experiment 3). Taken together, these results suggest that (1) even though the comparison stimulus was presented unilaterally, the representation of its duration was available to both cerebral hemispheres, and (2) a right hemisphere advantage in psychophysical tasks requiring the comparison of successive stimuli is observed for temporal and non-temporal judgments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd C Handy
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
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32
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Swerdlow NR, Pitcher L, Noh HR, Shoemaker JM. Startle gating in rats is disrupted by chemical inactivation but not D2 stimulation of the dorsomedial thalamus. Brain Res 2002; 953:246-54. [PMID: 12384258 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)03298-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The neural regulation of sensorimotor gating, as measured by prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle reflex, has been a focus of interest based on the consistent deficits in PPI reported in schizophrenia patients. While dorsomedial thalamus (MD) dysfunction has been implicated in the clinical 'gating' deficits of schizophrenia patients, relatively little is known regarding the regulation of PPI by the MD. We previously reported that PPI in rats is reduced after intra-MD infusion of the GABA agonist muscimol, or after excitotoxic lesions of the MD. In the present study, we tested the regulation of PPI by D2 receptors in the MD. PPI was measured after intra-MD infusion of the D2 agonist quinpirole (0, 1 or 10 microg/side) in a within-subject design. Infusion placement was confirmed functionally in later tests by reversible inactivation of the MD via intra-MD infusion of tetrodotoxin (TTX; 10 ng/side), and subsequently by direct histological examination. Intra-MD infusion of quinpirole had no significant effect on PPI, using doses that significantly disrupt PPI after infusion into the ventral forebrain (nucleus accumbens). TTX infusion into the MD caused a significant loss of PPI; this effect was not reversed by pretreatment with the atypical antipsychotic quetiapine (7.5 mg/kg). The MD regulation of PPI in rats is not mediated via D2 receptors, but is clearly manifested via PPI deficits after reversible MD inactivation via TTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal R Swerdlow
- Department of Psychiatry, UCSD School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804, USA.
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Saleem KS, Pauls JM, Augath M, Trinath T, Prause BA, Hashikawa T, Logothetis NK. Magnetic resonance imaging of neuronal connections in the macaque monkey. Neuron 2002; 34:685-700. [PMID: 12062017 DOI: 10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00718-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Recently, an MRI-detectable, neuronal tract-tracing method in living animals was introduced that exploits the anterograde transport of manganese (Mn2+). We present the results of experiments simultaneously tracing manganese chloride and wheat germ agglutinin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP) to evaluate the specificity of the former by tracing the neuronal connections of the basal ganglia of the monkey. Mn2+ and WGA-HRP yielded remarkably similar and highly specific projection patterns. By showing the sequential transport of Mn2+ from striatum to pallidum-substantia nigra and then to thalamus, we demonstrated MRI visualization of transport across at least one synapse in the CNS of the primate. Transsynaptic tract tracing in living primates will allow chronic studies of development and plasticity and provide valuable anatomical information for fMRI and electrophysiological experiments in primates.
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Parent M, Lévesque M, Parent A. Two types of projection neurons in the internal pallidum of primates: single-axon tracing and three-dimensional reconstruction. J Comp Neurol 2001; 439:162-75. [PMID: 11596046 DOI: 10.1002/cne.1340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The axonal projections of the internal pallidum (GPi) in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) were studied by labeling small pools of neurons with biotinylated dextran amine. Fifty-two axons were reconstructed entirely from serial sections with a camera lucida. Two types of projection neurons were identified in the GPi on the basis of their target sites. The abundant and centrally located type I neurons gave rise to a long axonal branch that descended directly to the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, where it arborized discretely. Other branches ascended to the thalamus and broke into 10-15 thinner collaterals that ran through most of the ventral anterior nucleus, where they terminated as typical plexuses. About half of these axons gave rise to collaterals that arborized in both components of the centre médian/parafascicular thalamic complex. The less numerous and peripherally located type II neurons had an axon that climbed the rostral thalamic pole, coursed along the stria medullaris, and arborized profusely within the lateral habenular nucleus, which stood out as the most densely innervated pallidal target. Some type II axons provided collaterals to the anterior thalamic nuclei. A small proportion of axons of both types had branches that crossed the midline and terminated in contralateral GPi target structures. Three-dimensional reconstruction showed that type I axons arborized principally along the sagittal plane. These data reveal that GPi neurons of type I act through a widely distributed axonal network upon thalamic and brainstem premotor neurons, whereas type II neurons act in a much more focused manner upon lateral habenular neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Parent
- Centre de recherche Université Laval Robert-Giffard, 2601, Chemin de la Canardière, Beauport, Québec, Canada, G1J 2G3
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Abstract
The current model of basal ganglia organization has been developed progressively over the last two decades in the light of key observations made at both experimental and clinical levels. This model has been highly successful in that it has stimulated a large amount of research in the field. However, several experimental and clinical findings that are at odds with the model have accumulated during the last decade. This paper reviews some of our own single-axon tracing studies in primates, which call for a re-evaluation of the current basal ganglia model.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Parent
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie, Centre de recherche Université Laval Robert-Giffard, 2601, de la Canardière, Que., G1J 2G3, Beauport, Canada
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Abstract
The distribution of corticostriatal neurons projecting to the caudate nucleus was examined in the cat by retrograde fluorescent tracers. Thus, Fast Blue and Diamidino Yellow were concomitantly injected in different rostrocaudal, dorsoventral, or mediolateral sectors of the caudate nucleus. The main findings of this study are: 1) few double-labeled cells were found after two injections in different sectors of the caudate nucleus; 2) double-labeled neurons were more abundant after adjacent injections and they were mainly located in 6 alpha beta, dorsolateral prefrontal, dorsomedial prefrontal, prelimbic, anterior limbic, sylvian anterior, and rostral part of cingulate cortical areas; and 3) there were variations in the spatial organization of the corticostriatal neurons in different cortical areas projecting to various parts of the caudate nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rosell
- Departamento de Anatomía, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
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Abstract
The goals of this article are to suggest a basic wiring diagram for the motor neural network that controls motivated behavior, and to provide a model for the organization of cerebral hemisphere inputs to this network. Cerebral projections mediate voluntary regulation of a behavior control column in the ventromedial upper brainstem that includes (from rostral to caudal) the medial preoptic, anterior hypothalamic, descending paraventricular, ventromedial, and premammillary nuclei, the mammillary body, and finally the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. The rostral segment of this column is involved in controlling ingestive (eating and drinking) and social (defensive and reproductive) behaviors, whereas the caudal segment is involved in controlling general exploratory or foraging behaviors (with locomotor and orienting components) that are required for obtaining any particular goal object. Virtually all parts of the cerebral hemispheres contribute to a triple descending projection - with cortical excitatory, striatal inhibitory, and pallidal disinhibitory components - to specific parts of the behavior control column. The functional dynamics of this circuitry remain to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- L W Swanson
- The Neuroscience Program, Hedco Neuroscience Building, Rm. 428, University of Southern California, 3614 Watt Way, 90089-2520, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Parent A, Sato F, Wu Y, Gauthier J, Lévesque M, Parent M. Organization of the basal ganglia: the importance of axonal collateralization. Trends Neurosci 2000; 23:S20-7. [PMID: 11052216 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-1931(00)00022-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Recent neuroanatomical data obtained with single-axon or single-cell labeling procedures in both rodents and primates have revealed the presence of various types of projection neurons with profusely collateralized axons within each of the major components of the basal ganglia. Such findings call for a reappraisal of current concepts of the anatomical and functional organization of the basal ganglia,which play such a crucial role in the control of motor behavior. The basal ganglia now stand as a widely distributed neuronal network, whose elements are endowed with a highly patterned set of axon collaterals. The elucidation of this finely tuned network is needed to understand the complex spatiotemporal sequence of neural events that ensures the flow of cortical information through the basal ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Parent
- Centre de recherche Université Laval Robert-Giffard, Beauport, Québec, Canada
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Chen H, Bagri A, Zupicich JA, Zou Y, Stoeckli E, Pleasure SJ, Lowenstein DH, Skarnes WC, Chédotal A, Tessier-Lavigne M. Neuropilin-2 regulates the development of selective cranial and sensory nerves and hippocampal mossy fiber projections. Neuron 2000; 25:43-56. [PMID: 10707971 DOI: 10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80870-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 303] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Neuropilin-1 and neuropilin-2 bind differentially to different class 3 semaphorins and are thought to provide the ligand-binding moieties in receptor complexes mediating repulsive responses to these semaphorins. Here, we have studied the function of neuropilin-2 through analysis of a neuropilin-2 mutant mouse, which is viable and fertile. Repulsive responses of sympathetic and hippocampal neurons to Sema3F but not to Sema3A are abolished in the mutant. Marked defects are observed in the development of several cranial nerves, in the initial central projections of spinal sensory axons, and in the anterior commissure, habenulo-interpeduncular tract, and the projections of hippocampal mossyfiber axons in the infrapyramidal bundle. Our results show that neuropilin-2 is an essential component of the Sema3F receptor and identify key roles for neuropilin-2 in axon guidance in the PNS and CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Chen
- Department of Anatomy, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco 94243-0452, USA
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