1
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Karliner J, Liu Y, Merry DE. Mutant androgen receptor induces neurite loss and senescence independently of ARE binding in a neuronal model of SBMA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2321408121. [PMID: 38976730 PMCID: PMC11260106 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2321408121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a slowly progressing neuromuscular disease caused by a polyglutamine (polyQ)-encoding CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion in the androgen receptor (AR) gene, leading to AR aggregation, lower motor neuron death, and muscle atrophy. AR is a ligand-activated transcription factor that regulates neuronal architecture and promotes axon regeneration; however, whether AR transcriptional functions contribute to disease pathogenesis is not fully understood. Using a differentiated PC12 cell model of SBMA, we identified dysfunction of polyQ-expanded AR in its regulation of neurite growth and maintenance. Specifically, we found that in the presence of androgens, polyQ-expanded AR inhibited neurite outgrowth, induced neurite retraction, and inhibited neurite regrowth. This dysfunction was independent of polyQ-expanded AR transcriptional activity at androgen response elements (ARE). We further showed that the formation of polyQ-expanded AR intranuclear inclusions promoted neurite retraction, which coincided with reduced expression of the neuronal differentiation marker β-III-Tubulin. Finally, we revealed that cell death is not the primary outcome for cells undergoing neurite retraction; rather, these cells become senescent. Our findings reveal that mechanisms independent of AR canonical transcriptional activity underly neurite defects in a cell model of SBMA and identify senescence as a pathway implicated in this pathology. These findings suggest that in the absence of a role for AR canonical transcriptional activity in the SBMA pathologies described here, the development of SBMA therapeutics that preserve this activity may be desirable. This approach may be broadly applicable to other polyglutamine diseases such as Huntington's disease and spinocerebellar ataxias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordyn Karliner
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
| | - Yuhong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
| | - Diane E. Merry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
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2
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Stahl A, Tomchik SM. Modeling neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders in the Drosophila mushroom body. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053816. [PMID: 38876485 PMCID: PMC11199955 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053816.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
The common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster provides a powerful platform to investigate the genetic, molecular, cellular, and neural circuit mechanisms of behavior. Research in this model system has shed light on multiple aspects of brain physiology and behavior, from fundamental neuronal function to complex behaviors. A major anatomical region that modulates complex behaviors is the mushroom body (MB). The MB integrates multimodal sensory information and is involved in behaviors ranging from sensory processing/responses to learning and memory. Many genes that underlie brain disorders are conserved, from flies to humans, and studies in Drosophila have contributed significantly to our understanding of the mechanisms of brain disorders. Genetic mutations that mimic human diseases-such as Fragile X syndrome, neurofibromatosis type 1, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease-affect MB structure and function, altering behavior. Studies dissecting the effects of disease-causing mutations in the MB have identified key pathological mechanisms, and the development of a complete connectome promises to add a comprehensive anatomical framework for disease modeling. Here, we review Drosophila models of human neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders via the effects of their underlying mutations on MB structure, function, and the resulting behavioral alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Stahl
- Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Seth M Tomchik
- Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
- Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
- Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
- Hawk-IDDRC, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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3
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Lisberg A, Liu Y, Merry DE. Blocking the dimerization of polyglutamine-expanded androgen receptor protects cells from DHT-induced toxicity by increasing AR turnover. J Biol Chem 2024; 300:107246. [PMID: 38556081 PMCID: PMC11067348 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a neuromuscular degenerative disease caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the androgen receptor (AR). This mutation causes AR to misfold and aggregate, contributing to toxicity in and degeneration of motor neurons and skeletal muscle. There is currently no effective treatment or cure for this disease. The role of an interdomain interaction between the amino- and carboxyl-termini of AR, termed the N/C interaction, has been previously identified as a component of androgen receptor-induced toxicity in cell and mouse models of SBMA. However, the mechanism by which this interaction contributes to disease pathology is unclear. This work seeks to investigate this mechanism by interrogating the role of AR homodimerization- a unique form of the N/C-interaction- in SBMA. We show that, although the AR N/C-interaction is reduced by polyglutamine-expansion, homodimers of 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-bound AR are increased. Additionally, blocking homodimerization results in decreased AR aggregation and toxicity in cell models. Blocking homodimerization results in the increased degradation of AR, which likely plays a role in the protective effects of this mutation. Overall, this work identifies a novel mechanism in SBMA pathology that may represent a novel target for the development of therapeutics for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Lisberg
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Yuhong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Diane E Merry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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4
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Richardson K, Sengupta M, Sujkowski A, Libohova K, Harris AC, Wessells R, Merry DE, Todi SV. A phenotypically robust model of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy in Drosophila. J Neurosci Res 2024; 102:e25278. [PMID: 38284836 PMCID: PMC11237963 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is an X-linked disorder that affects males who inherit the androgen receptor (AR) gene with an abnormal CAG triplet repeat expansion. The resulting protein contains an elongated polyglutamine (polyQ) tract and causes motor neuron degeneration in an androgen-dependent manner. The precise molecular sequelae of SBMA are unclear. To assist with its investigation and the identification of therapeutic options, we report here a new model of SBMA in Drosophila melanogaster. We generated transgenic flies that express the full-length, human AR with a wild-type or pathogenic polyQ repeat. Each transgene is inserted into the same safe harbor site on the third chromosome of the fly as a single copy and in the same orientation. Expression of pathogenic AR, but not of its wild-type variant, in neurons or muscles leads to consistent, progressive defects in longevity and motility that are concomitant with polyQ-expanded AR protein aggregation and reduced complexity in neuromuscular junctions. Additional assays show adult fly eye abnormalities associated with the pathogenic AR species. The detrimental effects of pathogenic AR are accentuated by feeding flies the androgen, dihydrotestosterone. This new, robust SBMA model can be a valuable tool toward future investigations of this incurable disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Richardson
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Medha Sengupta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alyson Sujkowski
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Kozeta Libohova
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Autumn C Harris
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
- Maximizing Access to Science Careers Program, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Robert Wessells
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Diane E Merry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sokol V Todi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
- Maximizing Access to Science Careers Program, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
- Department of Neurology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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Sengupta M, Pluciennik A, Merry DE. The role of ubiquitination in spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1020143. [PMID: 36277484 PMCID: PMC9583669 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1020143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a neurodegenerative and neuromuscular genetic disease caused by the expansion of a polyglutamine-encoding CAG tract in the androgen receptor (AR) gene. The AR is an important transcriptional regulator of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily; its levels are regulated in many ways including by ubiquitin-dependent degradation. Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification (PTM) which plays a key role in both AR transcriptional activity and its degradation. Moreover, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is a fundamental component of cellular functioning and has been implicated in diseases of protein misfolding and aggregation, including polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat expansion diseases such as Huntington's disease and SBMA. In this review, we discuss the details of the UPS system, its functions and regulation, and the role of AR ubiquitination and UPS components in SBMA. We also discuss aspects of the UPS that may be manipulated for therapeutic effect in SBMA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Diane E. Merry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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6
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Gogia N, Ni L, Olmos V, Haidery F, Luttik K, Lim J. Exploring the Role of Posttranslational Modifications in Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:931301. [PMID: 35726299 PMCID: PMC9206542 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.931301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy (SBMA) is an X-linked adult-onset progressive neuromuscular disease that affects the spinal and bulbar motor neurons and skeletal muscles. SBMA is caused by expansion of polymorphic CAG trinucleotide repeats in the Androgen Receptor (AR) gene, resulting in expanded glutamine tract in the AR protein. Polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion renders the mutant AR protein toxic, resulting in the formation of mutant protein aggregates and cell death. This classifies SBMA as one of the nine known polyQ diseases. Like other polyQ disorders, the expansion of the polyQ tract in the AR protein is the main genetic cause of the disease; however, multiple other mechanisms besides the polyQ tract expansion also contribute to the SBMA disease pathophysiology. Posttranslational modifications (PTMs), including phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation, ubiquitination, and SUMOylation are a category of mechanisms by which the functionality of AR has been found to be significantly modulated and can alter the neurotoxicity of SBMA. This review summarizes the different PTMs and their effects in regulating the AR function and discusses their pathogenic or protective roles in context of SBMA. This review also includes the therapeutic approaches that target the PTMs of AR in an effort to reduce the mutant AR-mediated toxicity in SBMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Gogia
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Luhan Ni
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Victor Olmos
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Fatema Haidery
- Yale College, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Kimberly Luttik
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Janghoo Lim
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States,Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States,Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
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Zhou T, Wang S, Song X, Liu W, Dong F, Huo Y, Zou R, Wang C, Zhang S, Liu W, Sun G, Lin L, Zeng K, Dong X, Guo Q, Yi F, Wang Z, Li X, Jiang B, Cao L, Zhao Y. RNF8 up-regulates AR/ARV7 action to contribute to advanced prostate cancer progression. Cell Death Dis 2022; 13:352. [PMID: 35428760 PMCID: PMC9012884 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-022-04787-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) signaling drives prostate cancer (PC) progression. Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is temporally effective, whereas drug resistance inevitably develops. Abnormal expression of AR/ARV7 (the most common AR splicing variant) is critical for endocrine resistance, while the detailed mechanism is still elusive. In this study, bioinformatics and immunohistochemical analyses demonstrate that RNF8 is high expressed in PC and castration-resistant PC (CRPC) samples and the expression of RNF8 is positively correlated with the Gleason score. The high expression of RNF8 in PCs predicts a poor prognosis. These results provide a potential function of RNF8 in PC progression. Furthermore, the mRNA expression of RNF8 is positively correlated with that of AR in PC. Mechanistically, we find that RNF8 upregulates c-Myc-induced AR transcription via altering histone modifications at the c-Myc binding site within the AR gene. RNF8 also acts as a co-activator of AR, promoting the recruitment of AR/ARV7 to the KLK3 (PSA) promoter, where RNF8 modulates histone modifications. These functions of RNF8 are dependent on its E3 ligase activity. RNF8 knockdown further reduces AR transactivation and PSA expression in CRPC cells with enzalutamide treatment. RNF8 depletion restrains cell proliferation and alleviates enzalutamide resistance in CRPC cells. Our findings indicate that RNF8 may be a potential therapeutic target for endocrine resistance in PC.
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8
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Genetic architecture of motor neuron diseases. J Neurol Sci 2021; 434:120099. [PMID: 34965490 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2021.120099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Motor neuron diseases (MNDs) are rare and frequently fatal neurological disorders in which motor neurons within the brainstem and spinal cord regions slowly die. MNDs are primarily caused by genetic mutations, and > 100 different mutant genes in humans have been discovered thus far. Given the fact that many more MND-related genes have yet to be discovered, the growing body of genetic evidence has offered new insights into the diverse cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the aetiology and pathogenesis of MNDs. This search may aid in the selection of potential candidate genes for future investigation and, eventually, may open the door to novel interventions to slow down disease progression. In this review paper, we have summarized detailed existing research findings of different MNDs, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), spinal bulbar muscle atrophy (SBMA) and hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) in relation to their complex genetic architecture.
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9
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Krishnamoorthy A, Kadener S. Using Drosophila to uncover molecular and physiological functions of circRNAs. Methods 2021; 196:74-84. [PMID: 33901645 PMCID: PMC8542058 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2021.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of covalently closed RNA molecules generated by backsplicing. circRNAs are expressed in a tissue-specific manner, accumulate with age in neural tissues, and are highly stable. In many cases, circRNAs are generated at the expense of a linear transcript as back-splicing competes with linear splicing. Some circRNAs regulate gene expression in cis, and some circRNAs can be translated into protein. The advent of deep sequencing and new bioinformatic tools has allowed detection of thousands of circRNAs in eukaryotes. Studying the functions of circRNAs is done using a combination of molecular and genetic methods. The unique genetic tools that can be used in studies of Drosophila melanogaster are ideal for deciphering the functions of circRNAs in vivo. These tools include the GAL4-UAS system, which can be used to manipulate the levels of circRNAs with exquisite temporal and spatial control, and genetic interaction screening, which could be used to identify pathways regulated by circRNAs. Research performed in Drosophila has revealed circRNAs production mechanisms, details of their translation, and their physiological functions. Due to their short lifecycle and the existence of excellent neurodegeneration models, Drosophila can also be used to study the role of circRNAs in aging and age-related disorders. Here, we review molecular and genetic tools and methods for detecting, manipulating, and studying circRNAs in Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sebastian Kadener
- Biology Department, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454, United States.
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10
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Gray AL, Annan L, Dick JRT, La Spada AR, Hanna MG, Greensmith L, Malik B. Deterioration of muscle force and contractile characteristics are early pathological events in spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy mice. Dis Model Mech 2020; 13:dmm042424. [PMID: 32152060 PMCID: PMC7272358 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.042424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), also known as Kennedy's Disease, is a late-onset X-linked progressive neuromuscular disease, which predominantly affects males. The pathological hallmarks of the disease are selective loss of spinal and bulbar motor neurons, accompanied by weakness, atrophy and fasciculations of bulbar and limb muscles. SBMA is caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the gene that encodes the androgen receptor (AR) protein. Disease manifestation is androgen dependent and results principally from a toxic gain of AR function. There are currently no effective treatments for this debilitating disease. It is important to understand the course of the disease in order to target therapeutics to key pathological stages. This is especially relevant in disorders such as SBMA, for which disease can be identified before symptom onset, through family history and genetic testing. To fully characterise the role of muscle in SBMA, we undertook a longitudinal physiological and histological characterisation of disease progression in the AR100 mouse model of SBMA. Our results show that the disease first manifests in skeletal muscle, before any motor neuron degeneration, which only occurs in late-stage disease. These findings reveal that alterations in muscle function, including reduced muscle force and changes in contractile characteristics, are early pathological events in SBMA mice and suggest that muscle-targeted therapeutics may be effective in SBMA.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna L Gray
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Leonette Annan
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - James R T Dick
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Albert R La Spada
- Department of Neurology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michael G Hanna
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
- UCL MRC International Centre for Genomic Medicine in Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Linda Greensmith
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Bilal Malik
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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11
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Rusmini P, Cristofani R, Tedesco B, Ferrari V, Messi E, Piccolella M, Casarotto E, Chierichetti M, Cicardi ME, Galbiati M, Geroni C, Lombardi P, Crippa V, Poletti A. Enhanced Clearance of Neurotoxic Misfolded Proteins by the Natural Compound Berberine and Its Derivatives. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21103443. [PMID: 32414108 PMCID: PMC7279252 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Accumulation of misfolded proteins is a common hallmark of several neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) which results from a failure or an impairment of the protein quality control (PQC) system. The PQC system is composed by chaperones and the degradative systems (proteasome and autophagy). Mutant proteins that misfold are potentially neurotoxic, thus strategies aimed at preventing their aggregation or at enhancing their clearance are emerging as interesting therapeutic targets for NDs. Methods: We tested the natural alkaloid berberine (BBR) and some derivatives for their capability to enhance misfolded protein clearance in cell models of NDs, evaluating which degradative pathway mediates their action. Results: We found that both BBR and its semisynthetic derivatives promote degradation of mutant androgen receptor (ARpolyQ) causative of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy, acting mainly via proteasome and preventing ARpolyQ aggregation. Overlapping effects were observed on other misfolded proteins causative of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal-lobar degeneration or Huntington disease, but with selective and specific action against each different mutant protein. Conclusions: BBR and its analogues induce the clearance of misfolded proteins responsible for NDs, representing potential therapeutic tools to counteract these fatal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Rusmini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Riccardo Cristofani
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Barbara Tedesco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Veronica Ferrari
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Elio Messi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Margherita Piccolella
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Elena Casarotto
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Marta Chierichetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Maria Elena Cicardi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Mariarita Galbiati
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Cristina Geroni
- Naxospharma srl, Novate Milanese, 20026 Milan, Italy; (C.G.); (P.L.)
| | - Paolo Lombardi
- Naxospharma srl, Novate Milanese, 20026 Milan, Italy; (C.G.); (P.L.)
| | - Valeria Crippa
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
| | - Angelo Poletti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari (DiSFeB), Dipartimento di Eccellenza 2018-2022, Centro di Eccellenza sulle Malattie Neurodegenerative, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (P.R.); (R.C.); (B.T.); (V.F.); (E.M.); (M.P.); (E.C.); (M.C.); (M.E.C.); (M.G.); (V.C.)
- Correspondence:
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12
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La Rosa P, Petrillo S, Bertini ES, Piemonte F. Oxidative Stress in DNA Repeat Expansion Disorders: A Focus on NRF2 Signaling Involvement. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10050702. [PMID: 32369911 PMCID: PMC7277112 DOI: 10.3390/biom10050702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA repeat expansion disorders are a group of neuromuscular and neurodegenerative diseases that arise from the inheritance of long tracts of nucleotide repetitions, located in the regulatory region, introns, or inside the coding sequence of a gene. Although loss of protein expression and/or the gain of function of its transcribed mRNA or translated product represent the major pathogenic effect of these pathologies, mitochondrial dysfunction and imbalance in redox homeostasis are reported as common features in these disorders, deeply affecting their severity and progression. In this review, we examine the role that the redox imbalance plays in the pathological mechanisms of DNA expansion disorders and the recent advances on antioxidant treatments, particularly focusing on the expression and the activity of the transcription factor NRF2, the main cellular regulator of the antioxidant response.
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13
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Yamanaka K. Animal models for neurodegenerative disorders. Anim Biotechnol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-811710-1.00003-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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14
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Djajadikerta A, Keshri S, Pavel M, Prestil R, Ryan L, Rubinsztein DC. Autophagy Induction as a Therapeutic Strategy for Neurodegenerative Diseases. J Mol Biol 2019; 432:2799-2821. [PMID: 31887286 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a major, conserved cellular pathway by which cells deliver cytoplasmic contents to lysosomes for degradation. Genetic studies have revealed extensive links between autophagy and neurodegenerative disease, and disruptions to autophagy may contribute to pathology in some cases. Autophagy degrades many of the toxic, aggregate-prone proteins responsible for such diseases, including mutant huntingtin (mHTT), alpha-synuclein (α-syn), tau, and others, raising the possibility that autophagy upregulation may help to reduce levels of toxic protein species, and thereby alleviate disease. This review examines autophagy induction as a potential therapy in several neurodegenerative diseases-Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, polyglutamine diseases, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Evidence in cells and in vivo demonstrates promising results in many disease models, in which autophagy upregulation is able to reduce the levels of toxic proteins, ameliorate signs of disease, and delay disease progression. However, the effective therapeutic use of autophagy induction requires detailed knowledge of how the disease affects the autophagy-lysosome pathway, as activating autophagy when the pathway cannot go to completion (e.g., when lysosomal degradation is impaired) may instead exacerbate disease in some cases. Investigating the interactions between autophagy and disease pathogenesis is thus a critical area for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvin Djajadikerta
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Swati Keshri
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mariana Pavel
- Department of Immunology, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, 700115, Romania
| | - Ryan Prestil
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Laura Ryan
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - David C Rubinsztein
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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15
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Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a neuromuscular disease caused by a polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion in the androgen receptor (AR). Despite the fact that the monogenic cause of SBMA has been known for nearly 3 decades, there is no effective treatment for this disease, underscoring the complexity of the pathogenic mechanisms that lead to a loss of motor neurons and muscle in SBMA patients. In the current review, we provide an overview of the system-wide clinical features of SBMA, summarize the structure and function of the AR, discuss both gain-of-function and loss-of-function mechanisms of toxicity caused by polyQ-expanded AR, and describe the cell and animal models utilized in the study of SBMA. Additionally, we summarize previously conducted clinical trials which, despite being based on positive results from preclinical studies, proved to be largely ineffective in the treatment of SBMA; nonetheless, these studies provide important insights as researchers develop the next generation of therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick J Arnold
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, 411E Jefferson Alumni Hall, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19107, USA
| | - Diane E Merry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, 411E Jefferson Alumni Hall, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19107, USA.
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16
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Hsp70 and Hsp40 inhibit an inter-domain interaction necessary for transcriptional activity in the androgen receptor. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3562. [PMID: 31395886 PMCID: PMC6687723 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11594-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular chaperones such as Hsp40 and Hsp70 hold the androgen receptor (AR) in an inactive conformation. They are released in the presence of androgens, enabling transactivation and causing the receptor to become aggregation-prone. Here we show that these molecular chaperones recognize a region of the AR N-terminal domain (NTD), including a FQNLF motif, that interacts with the AR ligand-binding domain (LBD) upon activation. This suggests that competition between molecular chaperones and the LBD for the FQNLF motif regulates AR activation. We also show that, while the free NTD oligomerizes, binding to Hsp70 increases its solubility. Stabilizing the NTD-Hsp70 interaction with small molecules reduces AR aggregation and promotes its degradation in cellular and mouse models of the neuromuscular disorder spinal bulbar muscular atrophy. These results help resolve the mechanisms by which molecular chaperones regulate the balance between AR aggregation, activation and quality control. Hsp chaperones stabilize the inactive conformation of androgen receptor (AR) and are released upon hormone-induced AR activation. Here, the authors locate the Hsp binding region on AR, and show that Hsp70 reduces AR aggregation and promotes AR degradation in cellular and mouse models of a neuromuscular disorder.
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17
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Phenotypic and molecular features underlying neurodegeneration of motor neurons derived from spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy patients. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 124:1-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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18
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Halievski K, Nath SR, Katsuno M, Adachi H, Sobue G, Breedlove SM, Lieberman AP, Jordan CL. Disease Affects Bdnf Expression in Synaptic and Extrasynaptic Regions of Skeletal Muscle of Three SBMA Mouse Models. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061314. [PMID: 30875922 PMCID: PMC6470984 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a slowly progressive, androgen-dependent neuromuscular disease in men that is characterized by both muscle and synaptic dysfunction. Because gene expression in muscle is heterogeneous, with synaptic myonuclei expressing genes that regulate synaptic function and extrasynaptic myonuclei expressing genes to regulate contractile function, we used quantitative PCR to compare gene expression in these two domains of muscle from three different mouse models of SBMA: the "97Q" model that ubiquitously expresses mutant human androgen receptor (AR), the 113Q knock-in (KI) model that expresses humanized mouse AR with an expanded glutamine tract, and the "myogenic" model that overexpresses wild-type rat AR only in skeletal muscle. We were particularly interested in neurotrophic factors because of their role in maintaining neuromuscular function via effects on both muscle and synaptic function, and their implicated role in SBMA. We confirmed previous reports of the enriched expression of select genes (e.g., the acetylcholine receptor) in the synaptic region of muscle, and are the first to report the synaptic enrichment of others (e.g., glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor). Interestingly, all three models displayed comparably dysregulated expression of most genes examined in both the synaptic and extrasynaptic domains of muscle, with only modest differences between regions and models. These findings of comprehensive gene dysregulation in muscle support the emerging view that skeletal muscle may be a prime therapeutic target for restoring function of both muscles and motoneurons in SBMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Halievski
- Neuroscience Program, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA.
| | - Samir R Nath
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Masahisa Katsuno
- Department of Neurology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan.
| | - Hiroaki Adachi
- Department of Neurology, University of Occupational and Environment Health School of Medicine, 1-1 Iseigaoka, Yahatanishi-ku, Kitakyushu Fukuoka 807-8555, Japan.
| | - Gen Sobue
- Department of Neurology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan.
| | - S Marc Breedlove
- Neuroscience Program, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA.
| | - Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Cynthia L Jordan
- Neuroscience Program, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA.
- Physiology Department, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA.
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19
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Gene expression analysis reveals early dysregulation of disease pathways and links Chmp7 to pathogenesis of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3539. [PMID: 30837566 PMCID: PMC6401132 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40118-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) results from a CAG repeat expansion within the androgen receptor gene (AR). It is unclear why motor neurons selectively degenerate and there are currently no treatments for this debilitating disease. To uncover the causative genes and pathways involved in motor neuron dysfunction, we undertook transcriptomic profiling of primary embryonic motor neurons from SBMA mice. We show that transcriptional dysregulation occurs early during development in SBMA motor neurons. One gene found to be dysregulated, Chmp7, was also altered in vivo in spinal cord before symptom onset in SBMA mice, and crucially in motor neuron precursor cells derived from SBMA patient stem cells, suggesting that Chmp7 may play a causal role in disease pathogenesis by disrupting the endosome-lysosome system. Furthermore, genes were enriched in SBMA motor neurons in several key pathways including p53, DNA repair, WNT and mitochondrial function. SBMA embryonic motor neurons also displayed dysfunctional mitochondria along with DNA damage, possibly resulting from DNA repair gene dysregulation and/or mitochondrial dysfunction. This indicates that a coordinated dysregulation of multiple pathways leads to development of SBMA. Importantly, our findings suggest that the identified pathways and genes, in particular Chmp7, may serve as potential therapeutic targets in SBMA.
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20
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Campanari ML, Bourefis AR, Kabashi E. Diagnostic Challenge and Neuromuscular Junction Contribution to ALS Pathogenesis. Front Neurol 2019; 10:68. [PMID: 30787905 PMCID: PMC6372519 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) represents the major adult-onset motor neuron disease. Both human and animal studies reveal the critical implication of muscle and neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) in the initial phase of this disease. Despite the common efforts, ALS diagnosis remains particularly challenging since many other disorders can overlap yielding similar clinical phenotypic features. A combination of further research on the NMJ parameters that are specific for this disease and laboratory tests are crucial for the early determination of specific changes in the muscle, as well as in motor neuron and the prediction of ALS progression. Also, it could provide a powerful tool in the discrimination of particular ALS and ALS-mimic cases and increase the efficacy of therapeutic treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria-Letizia Campanari
- Sorbonne Université, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université de Paris 06, Unité Mixte 75, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unité 1127, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7225 Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, Paris, France.,Imagine Institute, INSERM Unité 1163, Paris Descartes Université, Paris, France
| | - Annis-Rayan Bourefis
- Sorbonne Université, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université de Paris 06, Unité Mixte 75, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unité 1127, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7225 Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, Paris, France.,Imagine Institute, INSERM Unité 1163, Paris Descartes Université, Paris, France
| | - Edor Kabashi
- Sorbonne Université, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université de Paris 06, Unité Mixte 75, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unité 1127, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7225 Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, Paris, France.,Imagine Institute, INSERM Unité 1163, Paris Descartes Université, Paris, France
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21
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Impaired Nuclear Export of Polyglutamine-Expanded Androgen Receptor in Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy. Sci Rep 2019; 9:119. [PMID: 30644418 PMCID: PMC6333819 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36784-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a neuromuscular disease caused by polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion in the androgen receptor (AR). Prior studies have highlighted the importance of AR nuclear localization in SBMA pathogenesis; therefore, in this study, we sought to determine the role of AR nuclear export in the pathological manifestations of SBMA. We demonstrate here that the nuclear export of polyQ-expanded AR is impaired, even prior to the formation of intranuclear inclusions of aggregated AR. Additionally, we find that promoting AR export with an exogenous nuclear export signal substantially reduces its aggregation and blocks hormone-induced toxicity. Moreover, we show that these protective effects are conferred by destabilization of the mutant protein due to an increase in proteasomal degradation of the cytoplasmic AR. Despite a growing body of evidence that global disruption of nucleo/cytoplasmic transport occurs in ALS and HD, our data suggest that no such global disruption occurs in models of SBMA; rather, AR-specific mechanisms, including reduced phosphorylation at Serine 650, are likely responsible for the impaired nuclear export of polyQ-expanded AR.
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22
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Li Y, Zhang H, Zhao Y, Wang C, Cheng Z, Tang L, Gao Y, Liu F, Li J, Li Y, Li Y, Geng N, Rui X, Teng Y, Liu Y, Cao L, Kumar R, Jin F, Li F. A mandatory role of nuclear PAK4-LIFR axis in breast-to-bone metastasis of ERα-positive breast cancer cells. Oncogene 2018; 38:808-821. [PMID: 30177834 PMCID: PMC6367215 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-018-0456-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα)-positive breast cancer-associated bone metastasis is poorly understood. In this article, we report that nuclear p21-activated kinase 4 (nPAK4) is a novel repressor of ERα-mediated transactivation in a 17β-estradiol (E2)-dependent manner and promotes PAK4–ERα axis-mediated bone metastasis by targeting leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) in ERα-positive breast cancer. An evaluation of clinical breast cancer samples revealed that nPAK4 is linked to ERα expression and appears to be associated with a poor prognosis in bone metastatic breast cancer. PAK4 bound and co-translocated with ERα from the cytoplasm to the nucleus upon stimulation with E2. nPAK4 enhanced the invasive potential of ERα-positive breast cancer cells in vitro and promoted breast cancer metastasis in vivo. Mechanistically, nPAK4 promoted the metastasis of ERα-positive breast cancer cells by targeting LIFR, a bone metastasis suppressor. Strikingly, the nuclear accumulation of PAK4 might promote aggressive phenotypes, highlighting nPAK4 as a novel predictive biomarker for ERα-positive breast cancer bone metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanshu Li
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Hongyan Zhang
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yue Zhao
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Chunyu Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Zhenguo Cheng
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Lina Tang
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yunling Gao
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Furong Liu
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Jiabin Li
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Nanxi Geng
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Xue Rui
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, No. 155, North Nanjing Street, Heping District, 110001, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yuee Teng
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, No. 155, North Nanjing Street, Heping District, 110001, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Yunpeng Liu
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, No. 155, North Nanjing Street, Heping District, 110001, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Liu Cao
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
| | - Rakesh Kumar
- Cancer Research Program, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Thiruvananthapuram, 695014, Kerala, India
| | - Feng Jin
- Department of Surgical Oncology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, No. 155, North Nanjing Street, Heping District, 110001, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of Cell Biology of Ministry of Public Health, and Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology of Ministry of Education, China Medical University, No. 77, Puhe Road, Shenyang North New Area, 110122, Shenyang, Liaoning, China.
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23
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Lieberman AP, Shakkottai VG, Albin RL. Polyglutamine Repeats in Neurodegenerative Diseases. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2018; 14:1-27. [PMID: 30089230 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012418-012857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Among the age-dependent protein aggregation disorders, nine neurodegenerative diseases are caused by expansions of CAG repeats encoding polyglutamine (polyQ) tracts. We review the clinical, pathological, and biological features of these inherited disorders. We discuss insights into pathogenesis gleaned from studies of model systems and patients, highlighting work that informs efforts to develop effective therapies. An important conclusion from these analyses is that expanded CAG/polyQ domains are the primary drivers of neurodegeneration, with the biology of carrier proteins influencing disease-specific manifestations. Additionally, it has become apparent that CAG/polyQ repeat expansions produce neurodegeneration via multiple downstream mechanisms, involving both gain- and loss-of-function effects. This conclusion indicates that the likelihood of developing effective therapies targeting single nodes is reduced. The evaluation of treatments for premanifest disease will likely require new investigational approaches. We highlight the opportunities and challenges underlying ongoing work and provide recommendations related to the development of symptomatic and disease-modifying therapies and biomarkers that could inform future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA;
| | - Vikram G Shakkottai
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA; , .,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Roger L Albin
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA; , .,Neurology Service and the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center (GRECC), VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105, USA
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24
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Ueyama M, Nagai Y. Repeat Expansion Disease Models. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1076:63-78. [PMID: 29951815 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-0529-0_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2023]
Abstract
Repeat expansion disorders are a group of inherited neuromuscular diseases, which are caused by expansion mutations of repeat sequences in the disease-causing genes. Repeat expansion disorders include a class of diseases caused by repeat expansions in the coding region of the genes, producing mutant proteins with amino acid repeats, mostly the polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases, and another class of diseases caused by repeat expansions in the noncoding regions, producing aberrant RNA with expanded repeats, which are called noncoding repeat expansion diseases. A variety of Drosophila disease models have been established for both types of diseases, and they have made significant contributions toward elucidating the molecular mechanisms of and developing therapies for these neuromuscular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morio Ueyama
- Department of Neurotherapeutics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Nagai
- Department of Neurotherapeutics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.
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25
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Pennuto M, Rinaldi C. From gene to therapy in spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy: Are we there yet? Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 465:113-121. [PMID: 28688959 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Abnormal polyglutamine expansions in the androgen receptor (AR) cause a muscular condition, known as Kennedy's disease or spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA). The disease is transmitted in an X-linked fashion and is clinically characterized by weakness, atrophy and fasciculations of the limb and bulbar muscles as a result of a toxic gain-of-function of the mutant protein. Notably, affected males also show signs of androgen insensitivity, such as gynaecomastia and reduced fertility. The characterization of the natural history of the disease, the increasing understanding of the mechanism of pathogenesis and the elucidation of the functions of normal and mutant AR have offered a momentum for developing a rational therapeutic strategy for this disease. In this special issue on androgens and AR functions, we will review the molecular, biochemical, and cellular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of SBMA. We will discuss recent advances on therapeutic approaches and opportunities for this yet incurable disease, ranging from androgen deprivation, to gene silencing, to an expanding repertoire of peripheral targets, including muscle. With the advancement of these strategies into the clinic, it can be reasonably anticipated that the landscape of treatment options for SBMA and other neuromuscular conditions will change rapidly in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pennuto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35121 Padova, Italy.
| | - Carlo Rinaldi
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, OX1 3QX Oxford, UK.
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Potikanond S, Nimlamool W, Noordermeer J, Fradkin LG. Muscular Dystrophy Model. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1076:147-172. [PMID: 29951819 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-0529-0_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Muscular dystrophy (MD) is a group of muscle weakness disease involving in inherited genetic conditions. MD is caused by mutations or alteration in the genes responsible for the structure and functioning of muscles. There are many different types of MD which have a wide range from mild symptoms to severe disability. Some types involve the muscles used for breathing which eventually affect life expectancy. This chapter provides an overview of the MD types, its gene mutations, and the Drosophila MD models. Specifically, the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), the most common form of MD, will be thoroughly discussed including Dystrophin genes, their isoforms, possible mechanisms, and signaling pathways of pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saranyapin Potikanond
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
| | - Wutigri Nimlamool
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Jasprien Noordermeer
- Department of Molecular Biology, Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC), Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lee G Fradkin
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
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Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is an adult-onset degenerative disorder of the neuromuscular system resulting in slowly progressive weakness and atrophy of the proximal limb and bulbar muscles. The disease is caused by the expansion of a CAG/glutamine tract in the amino-terminus of the androgen receptor. That SBMA exclusively affects males reflects the fact that critical pathogenic events are hormone-dependent. These include translocation of the polyglutamine androgen receptor from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and unfolding of the mutant protein. Studies of the pathology of SBMA subjects have revealed nuclear aggregates of the mutant androgen receptor, loss of lower motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord, and both neurogenic and myopathic changes in skeletal muscle. Mechanisms underlying disease pathogenesis include toxicity in both lower motor neurons and skeletal muscle, where effects on transcription, intracellular transport, and mitochondrial function have been documented. Therapies to treat SBMA patients remain largely supportive, although experimental approaches targeting androgen action or promoting degradation of the mutant androgen receptor protein or the encoding RNA are under active study.
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X-Linked Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy: From Clinical Genetic Features and Molecular Pathology to Mechanisms Underlying Disease Toxicity. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1049:103-133. [PMID: 29427100 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-71779-1_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy (SBMA) is an inherited neuromuscular disorder caused by a CAG-polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat expansion in the androgen receptor (AR) gene. Unlike other polyQ diseases, where the function of the native causative protein is unknown, the biology of AR is well understood, and this knowledge has informed our understanding of how native AR function interfaces with polyQ-AR dysfunction. Furthermore, ligand-dependent activation of AR has been linked to SBMA disease pathogenesis, and has led to a thorough study of androgen-mediated effects on polyQ-AR stability, degradation, and post-translational modifications, as well as their roles in the disease process. Transcriptional dysregulation, proteostasis dysfunction, and mitochondrial abnormalities are central to polyQ-AR neurotoxicity, most likely via a 'change-of-function' mechanism. Intriguingly, recent work has demonstrated a principal role for skeletal muscle in SBMA disease pathogenesis, indicating that polyQ-AR toxicity initiates in skeletal muscle and results in secondary motor neuron demise. The existence of robust animal models for SBMA has permitted a variety of preclinical trials, driven by recent discoveries of altered cellular processes, and some of this preclinical work has led to human clinical trials. In this chapter, we review SBMA clinical features and disease biology, discuss our current understanding of the cellular and molecular basis of SBMA pathogenesis, and highlight ongoing efforts toward therapy development.
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The CAG-polyglutamine repeat diseases: a clinical, molecular, genetic, and pathophysiologic nosology. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2018; 147:143-170. [PMID: 29325609 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63233-3.00011-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Throughout the genome, unstable tandem nucleotide repeats can expand to cause a variety of neurologic disorders. Expansion of a CAG triplet repeat within a coding exon gives rise to an elongated polyglutamine (polyQ) tract in the resultant protein product, and accounts for a unique category of neurodegenerative disorders, known as the CAG-polyglutamine repeat diseases. The nine members of the CAG-polyglutamine disease family include spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), Huntington disease, dentatorubral pallidoluysian atrophy, and six spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 17). All CAG-polyglutamine diseases are dominantly inherited, with the exception of SBMA, which is X-linked, and many CAG-polyglutamine diseases display anticipation, which is defined as increasing disease severity in successive generations of an affected kindred. Despite widespread expression of the different polyQ-expanded disease proteins throughout the body, each CAG-polyglutamine disease strikes a particular subset of neurons, although the mechanism for this cell-type selectivity remains poorly understood. While the different genes implicated in these disorders display amino acid homology only in the repeat tract domain, certain pathologic molecular processes have been implicated in almost all of the CAG-polyglutamine repeat diseases, including protein aggregation, proteolytic cleavage, transcription dysregulation, autophagy impairment, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Here we highlight the clinical and molecular genetic features of each distinct disorder, and then discuss common themes in CAG-polyglutamine disease pathogenesis, closing with emerging advances in therapy development.
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30
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Giorgetti E, Yu Z, Chua JP, Shimamura R, Zhao L, Zhu F, Venneti S, Pennuto M, Guan Y, Hung G, Lieberman AP. Rescue of Metabolic Alterations in AR113Q Skeletal Muscle by Peripheral Androgen Receptor Gene Silencing. Cell Rep 2017; 17:125-136. [PMID: 27681426 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.08.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), a progressive degenerative disorder, is caused by a CAG/glutamine expansion in the androgen receptor (polyQ AR). Recent studies demonstrate that skeletal muscle is an important site of toxicity that contributes to the SBMA phenotype. Here, we sought to identify critical pathways altered in muscle that underlie disease manifestations in AR113Q mice. This led to the unanticipated identification of gene expression changes affecting regulators of carbohydrate metabolism, similar to those triggered by denervation. AR113Q muscle exhibits diminished glycolysis, altered mitochondria, and an impaired response to exercise. Strikingly, the expression of genes regulating muscle energy metabolism is rescued following peripheral polyQ AR gene silencing by antisense oligonucleotides (ASO), a therapeutic strategy that alleviates disease. Our data establish the occurrence of a metabolic imbalance in SBMA muscle triggered by peripheral expression of the polyQ AR and indicate that alterations in energy utilization contribute to non-neuronal disease manifestations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Giorgetti
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Zhigang Yu
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jason P Chua
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Ryosuke Shimamura
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Lili Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Fan Zhu
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Sriram Venneti
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Maria Pennuto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, Trento 38123, Italy
| | - Yuanfang Guan
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Gene Hung
- Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Carlsbad, CA 92010, USA
| | - Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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31
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Gong P, Fang P, Yang X, Ru W, Wang B, Gao X, Liu J. The CAG polymorphism in androgen receptor (AR) gene impacts the moral permissibility of harmful behavior in females. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 80:74-79. [PMID: 28324702 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The moral permissibility of harm is strikingly varied among individuals. In light of the connection between testosterone levels and utilitarian moral judgment, this study examined to what extent a CAG polymorphism in the androgen receptor gene, a genetic polymorphism with the ability to regulate testosterone function, contributes to individual differences in moral judgment. Four hundred and thirty-nine Chinese Han participants completed permissibility ratings of harm in moral dilemmas and moral transgression scenarios. Results showed a significant association between the CAG polymorphism and moral permissibility of harm in females. Females with more copies of the S allele, which is associated with higher availability of testosterone, were more likely to judge harmful utilitarian acts and unintentionally harmful acts as permissible, while these effects were absent in males. The findings provide the first evidence for a link between the androgen receptor gene and moral judgment and highlight the role of androgens in moral foundations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingyuan Gong
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (Ministry of Education), College of Life Science, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Pengpeng Fang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Xing Yang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Wenzhao Ru
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Bei Wang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Xiaocai Gao
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China; Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (Ministry of Education), College of Life Science, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Jinting Liu
- China Center for Special Economic Zone Research, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Research Center for Brain Function and Psychological Science, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China.
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32
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Yersak JM, Montie HL, Chevalier-Larsen ES, Liu Y, Huang L, Rechsteiner M, Merry DE. The 11S Proteasomal Activator REGγ Impacts Polyglutamine-Expanded Androgen Receptor Aggregation and Motor Neuron Viability through Distinct Mechanisms. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:159. [PMID: 28596723 PMCID: PMC5442185 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is caused by expression of a polyglutamine (polyQ)-expanded androgen receptor (AR). The inefficient nuclear proteasomal degradation of the mutant AR results in the formation of nuclear inclusions containing amino-terminal fragments of the mutant AR. PA28γ (also referred to as REGγ) is a nuclear 11S-proteasomal activator with limited proteasome activation capabilities compared to its cytoplasmic 11S (PA28α, PA28β) counterparts. To clarify the role of REGγ in polyQ-expanded AR metabolism, we carried out genetic and biochemical studies in cell models of SBMA. Overexpression of REGγ in a PC12 cell model of SBMA increased polyQ-expanded AR aggregation and contributed to polyQ-expanded AR toxicity in the presence of dihydrotestosterone (DHT). These effects of REGγ were independent of its association with the proteasome and may be due, in part, to the decreased binding of polyQ-expanded AR by the E3 ubiquitin-ligase MDM2. Unlike its effects in PC12 cells, REGγ overexpression rescued transgenic SBMA motor neurons from DHT-induced toxicity in a proteasome binding-dependent manner, suggesting that the degradation of a specific 11S proteasome substrate or substrates promotes motor neuron viability. One potential substrate that we found to play a role in mutant AR toxicity is the splicing factor SC35. These studies reveal that, depending on the cellular context, two biological roles for REGγ impact cell viability in the face of polyQ-expanded AR; a proteasome binding-independent mechanism directly promotes mutant AR aggregation while a proteasome binding-dependent mechanism promotes cell viability. The balance between these functions likely determines REGγ effects on polyQ-expanded AR-expressing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill M. Yersak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Heather L. Montie
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Erica S. Chevalier-Larsen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Yuhong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Lan Huang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
| | - Martin Rechsteiner
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of MedicineSalt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Diane E. Merry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphia, PA, United States
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33
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Borgia D, Malena A, Spinazzi M, Desbats MA, Salviati L, Russell AP, Miotto G, Tosatto L, Pegoraro E, Sorarù G, Pennuto M, Vergani L. Increased mitophagy in the skeletal muscle of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy patients. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:1087-1103. [PMID: 28087734 PMCID: PMC5409076 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a neuromuscular disorder caused by polyglutamine expansion in the androgen receptor (AR) and characterized by the loss of lower motor neurons. Here we investigated pathological processes occurring in muscle biopsy specimens derived from SBMA patients and, as controls, age-matched healthy subjects and patients suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and neurogenic atrophy. We detected atrophic fibers in the muscle of SBMA, ALS and neurogenic atrophy patients. In addition, SBMA muscle was characterized by the presence of a large number of hypertrophic fibers, with oxidative fibers having a larger size compared with glycolytic fibers. Polyglutamine-expanded AR expression was decreased in whole muscle, yet enriched in the nucleus, and localized to mitochondria. Ultrastructural analysis revealed myofibrillar disorganization and streaming in zones lacking mitochondria and degenerating mitochondria. Using molecular (mtDNA copy number), biochemical (citrate synthase and respiratory chain enzymes) and morphological (dark blue area in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-stained muscle cross-sections) analyses, we found a depletion of the mitochondria associated with enhanced mitophagy. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed an increase of phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylserines in mitochondria isolated from SBMA muscles, as well as a 50% depletion of cardiolipin associated with decreased expression of the cardiolipin synthase gene. These observations suggest a causative link between nuclear polyglutamine-expanded AR accumulation, depletion of mitochondrial mass, increased mitophagy and altered mitochondrial membrane composition in SBMA muscle patients. Given the central role of mitochondria in cell bioenergetics, therapeutic approaches toward improving the mitochondrial network are worth considering to support SBMA patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doriana Borgia
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Adriana Malena
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Marco Spinazzi
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Maria Andrea Desbats
- Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova, Padova, Italy, and IRP Città della Speranza, Padova, Italy
| | - Leonardo Salviati
- Clinical Genetics Unit, Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padova, Padova, Italy, and IRP Città della Speranza, Padova, Italy
| | - Aaron P Russell
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, Australia
| | - Giovanni Miotto
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Proteomic Center of Padova University, VIMM and Padova University Hospital, Padova, Italy
| | - Laura Tosatto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Elena Pegoraro
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Gianni Sorarù
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Pennuto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Lodovica Vergani
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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34
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Querin G, Sorarù G, Pradat PF. Kennedy disease (X-linked recessive bulbospinal neuronopathy): A comprehensive review from pathophysiology to therapy. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2017; 173:326-337. [PMID: 28473226 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2017.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Revised: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Kennedy's disease, also known as spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), is a rare, adult-onset, X-linked recessive neuromuscular disease caused by expansion of a CAG repeat sequence in exon 1 of the androgen receptor gene (AR) encoding a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract. The polyQ-expanded AR accumulates in nuclei, and initiates degeneration and loss of motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia. While the disease has long been considered a pure lower motor neuron disease, recently, the presence of major hyper-creatine-kinase (CK)-emia and myopathic alterations on muscle biopsy has suggested the presence of a primary myopathy underlying a wide range of clinical manifestations. The disease, which affects male adults, is characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy localized proximally in the limbs, and bulbar involvement. Sensory disturbances are associated with the motor phenotype, but may be subclinical. The most frequent systemic symptom is gynecomastia related to androgen insensitivity, but other abnormalities, such as heart rhythm and urinary disturbances, have also been reported. The course of the disease is slowly progressive with normal life expectancy. The diagnosis of SBMA is based on genetic testing, with 38 CAG repeats taken as pathogenic. Despite several therapeutic attempts made in mouse models, no effective disease-modifying therapy is yet available, although symptomatic therapy is beneficial for the management of the weakness, fatigue and bulbar symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Querin
- Laboratoire d'imagerie biomédicale, Sorbonne universités, UPMC University Paris 06, CNRS, Inserm, 75013 Paris, France; Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - G Sorarù
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - P-F Pradat
- Laboratoire d'imagerie biomédicale, Sorbonne universités, UPMC University Paris 06, CNRS, Inserm, 75013 Paris, France; Département des maladies du système nerveux, hôpital Pitié-Salpêtriere, centre référent-SLA, AP-HP, 47-83, boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France.
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35
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Koon AC, Chan HYE. Drosophila melanogaster As a Model Organism to Study RNA Toxicity of Repeat Expansion-Associated Neurodegenerative and Neuromuscular Diseases. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:70. [PMID: 28377694 PMCID: PMC5359753 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
For nearly a century, the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has proven to be a valuable tool in our understanding of fundamental biological processes, and has empowered our discoveries, particularly in the field of neuroscience. In recent years, Drosophila has emerged as a model organism for human neurodegenerative and neuromuscular disorders. In this review, we highlight a number of recent studies that utilized the Drosophila model to study repeat-expansion associated diseases (READs), such as polyglutamine diseases, fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS), myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) and type 2 (DM2), and C9ORF72-associated amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/frontotemporal dementia (C9-ALS/FTD). Discoveries regarding the possible mechanisms of RNA toxicity will be focused here. These studies demonstrate Drosophila as an excellent in vivo model system that can reveal novel mechanistic insights into human disorders, providing the foundation for translational research and therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex C Koon
- Laboratory of Drosophila ResearchHong Kong, Hong Kong; Biochemistry ProgramHong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Ho Yin Edwin Chan
- Laboratory of Drosophila ResearchHong Kong, Hong Kong; Biochemistry ProgramHong Kong, Hong Kong; Cell and Molecular Biology ProgramHong Kong, Hong Kong; Molecular Biotechnology Program, Faculty of Science, School of Life SciencesHong Kong, Hong Kong; School of Life Sciences, Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, The Chinese University of Hong KongHong Kong, Hong Kong
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36
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Milioto C, Malena A, Maino E, Polanco MJ, Marchioretti C, Borgia D, Pereira MG, Blaauw B, Lieberman AP, Venturini R, Plebani M, Sambataro F, Vergani L, Pegoraro E, Sorarù G, Pennuto M. Beta-agonist stimulation ameliorates the phenotype of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy mice and patient-derived myotubes. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41046. [PMID: 28117338 PMCID: PMC5259768 DOI: 10.1038/srep41046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a neuromuscular disease characterized by the loss of lower motor neurons. SBMA is caused by expansions of a polyglutamine tract in the gene coding for androgen receptor (AR). Expression of polyglutamine-expanded AR causes damage to motor neurons and skeletal muscle cells. Here we investigated the effect of β-agonist stimulation in SBMA myotube cells derived from mice and patients, and in knock-in mice. We show that treatment of myotubes expressing polyglutamine-expanded AR with the β-agonist clenbuterol increases their size. Clenbuterol activated the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and decreased the accumulation of polyglutamine-expanded AR. Treatment of SBMA knock-in mice with clenbuterol, which was started at disease onset, ameliorated motor function and extended survival. Clenbuterol improved muscle pathology, attenuated the glycolytic-to-oxidative metabolic alterations occurring in SBMA muscles and induced hypertrophy of both glycolytic and oxidative fibers. These results indicate that β-agonist stimulation is a novel therapeutic strategy for SBMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmelo Milioto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 16163 Genova, Italy.,Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, University of Genova, 16100 Genova, Italy
| | - Adriana Malena
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Eleonora Maino
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Maria J Polanco
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Caterina Marchioretti
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Doriana Borgia
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Marcelo Gomes Pereira
- Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Bert Blaauw
- Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Roberta Venturini
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Mario Plebani
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Fabio Sambataro
- Department of Experimental &Clinical Medical Sciences (DISM), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy
| | - Lodovica Vergani
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Elena Pegoraro
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Gianni Sorarù
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Pennuto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy
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37
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Giorgetti E, Lieberman AP. Polyglutamine androgen receptor-mediated neuromuscular disease. Cell Mol Life Sci 2016; 73:3991-9. [PMID: 27188284 PMCID: PMC5045769 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-016-2275-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
An expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) tract at the amino-terminus of the androgen receptor (AR) confers toxic properties responsible for neuronal and non-neuronal degeneration in spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), one of nine polyQ expansion diseases. Both lower motor neurons and peripheral tissues, including skeletal muscle, are affected, supporting the notion that SBMA is not a pure motor neuron disease but a degenerative disorder of the neuromuscular system. Here, we review experimental evidence demonstrating both nerve and muscle degeneration in SBMA model systems and patients. We propose that polyQ AR toxicity targets these components in a time-dependent fashion, with muscle pathology predominating early and motor neuron loss becoming more significant at late stages. This model of pathogenesis has important therapeutic implications, suggesting that symptoms arising from degeneration of nerve or muscle predominate at different points and that directed interventions targeting these components will be variably effective depending upon disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Giorgetti
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 3510 MSRB1, 1150 West Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 3510 MSRB1, 1150 West Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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38
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Modulation of Molecular Chaperones in Huntington’s Disease and Other Polyglutamine Disorders. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:5829-5854. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0120-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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39
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Sun S, Zhong X, Wang C, Sun H, Wang S, Zhou T, Zou R, Lin L, Sun N, Sun G, Wu Y, Wang B, Song X, Cao L, Zhao Y. BAP18 coactivates androgen receptor action and promotes prostate cancer progression. Nucleic Acids Res 2016; 44:8112-28. [PMID: 27226492 PMCID: PMC5041452 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkw472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BPTF associated protein of 18 kDa (BAP18) has been reported as a component of MLL1-WDR5 complex. However, BAP18 is an uncharacterized protein. The detailed biological functions of BAP18 and underlying mechanisms have not been defined. Androgen receptor (AR), a member of transcription factor, plays an essential role in prostate cancer (PCa) and castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) progression. Here, we demonstrate that BAP18 is identified as a coactivator of AR in Drosophilar experimental system and mammalian cells. BAP18 facilitates the recruitment of MLL1 subcomplex and AR to androgen-response element (ARE) of AR target genes, subsequently increasing histone H3K4 trimethylation and H4K16 acetylation. Knockdown of BAP18 attenuates cell growth and proliferation of PCa cells. Moreover, BAP18 depletion results in inhibition of xenograft tumor growth in mice even under androgen-depletion conditions. In addition, our data show that BAP18 expression in clinical PCa samples is higher than that in benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Our data suggest that BAP18 as an epigenetic modifier regulates AR-induced transactivation and the function of BAP18 might be targeted in human PCa to promote tumor growth and progression to castration-resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiying Sun
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Xinping Zhong
- Department of General Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Chunyu Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Hongmiao Sun
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Shengli Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Tingting Zhou
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Renlong Zou
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Lin Lin
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Ning Sun
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Ge Sun
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Yi Wu
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Botao Wang
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110004, China
| | - Xiaoyu Song
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Liu Cao
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Yue Zhao
- Department of Cell Biology, Key laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, and Key laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
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40
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Hoo FK, Hasan Sumon MS, Basri H, Wan Sulaiman WA, Stanslas J, Zaman Hashim H, Young CA. Androgen-modulating agents for spinal bulbar muscular atrophy/Kennedy's disease. THE COCHRANE DATABASE OF SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd012000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fan Kee Hoo
- Universiti Putra Malaysia; Neurology Unit, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Serdang Malaysia
| | - Md. Shariful Hasan Sumon
- Universiti Putra Malaysia; Neurology Unit, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Serdang Malaysia
| | - Hamidon Basri
- Universiti Putra Malaysia; Neurology Unit, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Serdang Malaysia
| | - Wan Aliaa Wan Sulaiman
- Universiti Putra Malaysia; Neurology Unit, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; Serdang Malaysia
| | - Johnson Stanslas
- Universiti Putra Malaysia; Pharmacology and Therapeutic Unit, Department of Medicine; Fakulti Perubatan dan Sains Kesihatan Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia 43400
| | - Hasnur Zaman Hashim
- International Islamic University Malaysia; Neurology Department; No 25, Lorong IM 8/44, Taman Mahkota Putra Indera Mahkota 8 Kuantan Pahang Malaysia 25200
| | - Carolyn A Young
- The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust; Lower Lane Fazakerley Liverpool UK L9 7LJ
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41
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Zboray L, Pluciennik A, Curtis D, Liu Y, Berman-Booty LD, Orr C, Kesler CT, Berger T, Gioeli D, Paschal BM, Merry DE. Preventing the Androgen Receptor N/C Interaction Delays Disease Onset in a Mouse Model of SBMA. Cell Rep 2015; 13:2312-23. [PMID: 26673324 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the androgen receptor (AR) and is associated with misfolding and aggregation of the mutant AR. We investigated the role of an interdomain interaction between the amino (N)-terminal FxxLF motif and carboxyl (C)-terminal AF-2 domain in a mouse model of SBMA. Male transgenic mice expressing polyQ-expanded AR with a mutation in the FxxLF motif (F23A) to prevent the N/C interaction displayed substantially improved motor function compared with N/C-intact AR-expressing mice and showed reduced pathological features of SBMA. Serine 16 phosphorylation was substantially enhanced by the F23A mutation; moreover, the protective effect of AR F23A was dependent on this phosphorylation. These results reveal an important role for the N/C interaction on disease onset in mice and suggest that targeting AR conformation could be a therapeutic strategy for patients with SBMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Zboray
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Anna Pluciennik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Dana Curtis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Yuhong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Lisa D Berman-Booty
- Department of Cancer Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Christopher Orr
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Cristina T Kesler
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Health System, Center for Cell Signaling, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Tamar Berger
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Daniel Gioeli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Bryce M Paschal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Health System, Center for Cell Signaling, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Diane E Merry
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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Pennuto M, Basso M. In Vitro and In Vivo Modeling of Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy. J Mol Neurosci 2015; 58:365-73. [PMID: 26614347 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-015-0677-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is an X-linked neuromuscular disease characterized by late-onset, progressive degeneration of lower motor neurons and skeletal muscle atrophy. SBMA is caused by expansions of a CAG trinucleotide repeat in the gene encoding the androgen receptor (AR). One striking feature of SBMA is sex specificity: SBMA fully manifests only in males, whereas females show subclinical or mild disease manifestations even when homozygous for the mutation. Since the identification of the mutation responsible for SBMA in 1991, several cell and animal models have been developed to recapitulate the main features of disease in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we describe the most widely used cellular and animal models of SBMA, highlighting advantages and disadvantages in the use of these models to gain mechanistic and therapeutic insights into SBMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pennuto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute Lab of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre for Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123, Trento, Italy.
| | - Manuela Basso
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Neurobiology, Centre for Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, Via Sommarive 9, 38123, Trento, Italy.
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Rinaldi C, Malik B, Greensmith L. Targeted Molecular Therapies for SBMA. J Mol Neurosci 2015; 58:335-42. [PMID: 26576772 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-015-0676-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a late-onset neuromuscular disease caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the androgen receptor gene which results in progressive spinal and bulbar motor neuron degeneration, and muscle atrophy. Although the causative genetic defect is known, until recently, the molecular pathogenesis of the disease was unclear, resulting in few, if any, targets for therapy development. However, over the past decade, our understanding of the pathomechanisms that play a role in SBMA has increased dramatically, and several of these pathways and mechanisms have now been investigated as possible therapeutic targets. In this review, we discuss some of the key pathomechanisms implicated in SBMA and describe some of the therapeutic strategies that have been tested in SBMA to date, which fall into four main categories: (i) gene silencing; (ii) protein quality control and/or increased protein degradation; (iii) androgen deprivation; and (iv) modulation of AR function. Finally, it is also now clear that in addition to a greater understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie disease, the development of an effective disease modifying therapy for SBMA will require the coordinated, collaborative effort of research teams with diverse areas of expertise, clinicians, pharmaceutical companies as well as patient groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Rinaldi
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3QX, UK.
| | - Bilal Malik
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Linda Greensmith
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
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44
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The Role of the Protein Quality Control System in SBMA. J Mol Neurosci 2015; 58:348-64. [PMID: 26572535 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-015-0675-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) or Kennedy's disease is an X-linked disease associated with the expansion of the CAG triplet repeat present in exon 1 of the androgen receptor (AR) gene. This results in the production of a mutant AR containing an elongated polyglutamine tract (polyQ) in its N-terminus. Interestingly, the ARpolyQ becomes toxic only after its activation by the natural androgenic ligands, possibly because of aberrant androgen-induced conformational changes of the ARpolyQ, which generate misfolded species. These misfolded ARpolyQ species must be cleared from motoneurons and muscle cells, and this process is mediated by the protein quality control (PQC) system. Experimental evidence suggested that failure of the PQC pathways occurs in disease, leading to ARpolyQ accumulation and toxicity in the target cells. In this review, we summarized the overall impact of mutant and misfolded ARpolyQ on the PQC system and described how molecular chaperones and the degradative pathways (ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), the autophagy-lysosome pathway (ALP), and the unfolded protein response (UPR), which activates the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD)) are differentially affected in SBMA. We also extensively and critically reviewed several molecular and pharmacological approaches proposed to restore a global intracellular activity of the PQC system. Collectively, these data suggest that the fine and delicate equilibrium existing among the different players of the PQC system could be restored in a therapeutic perspective by the synergic/additive activities of compounds designed to tackle sequential or alternative steps of the intracellular defense mechanisms triggered against proteotoxic misfolded species.
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45
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Berger TR, Montie HL, Jain P, Legleiter J, Merry DE. Identification of novel polyglutamine-expanded aggregation species in spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Brain Res 2015; 1628:254-264. [PMID: 26453288 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 09/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Polyglutamine-repeat disorders are part of a larger family of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by protein misfolding and aggregation. In spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), polyglutamine expansion within the androgen receptor (AR) causes progressive debilitating muscular atrophy and lower motor neuron loss in males. Although soluble polyglutamine-expanded aggregation species are considered toxic intermediates in the aggregation process, relatively little is known about the spectrum of structures that are formed. Here we identify novel polyglutamine-expanded AR aggregates that are SDS-soluble and bind the toxicity-predicting antibody 3B5H10. Soluble, 3B5H10-reactive aggregation species exist in low-density conformations and are larger by atomic force microscopy, suggesting that they may be less compact than later-stage, insoluble aggregates. We demonstrate disease-relevance in vivo and draw correlations with toxicity in vitro. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar R Berger
- Thomas Jefferson University, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Heather L Montie
- Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine, Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Pranav Jain
- West Virginia University, Department of Chemistry, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Justin Legleiter
- West Virginia University, Department of Chemistry, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Diane E Merry
- Thomas Jefferson University, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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46
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McGurk L, Berson A, Bonini NM. Drosophila as an In Vivo Model for Human Neurodegenerative Disease. Genetics 2015; 201:377-402. [PMID: 26447127 PMCID: PMC4596656 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.115.179457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
With the increase in the ageing population, neurodegenerative disease is devastating to families and poses a huge burden on society. The brain and spinal cord are extraordinarily complex: they consist of a highly organized network of neuronal and support cells that communicate in a highly specialized manner. One approach to tackling problems of such complexity is to address the scientific questions in simpler, yet analogous, systems. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has been proven tremendously valuable as a model organism, enabling many major discoveries in neuroscientific disease research. The plethora of genetic tools available in Drosophila allows for exquisite targeted manipulation of the genome. Due to its relatively short lifespan, complex questions of brain function can be addressed more rapidly than in other model organisms, such as the mouse. Here we discuss features of the fly as a model for human neurodegenerative disease. There are many distinct fly models for a range of neurodegenerative diseases; we focus on select studies from models of polyglutamine disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis that illustrate the type and range of insights that can be gleaned. In discussion of these models, we underscore strengths of the fly in providing understanding into mechanisms and pathways, as a foundation for translational and therapeutic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leeanne McGurk
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Amit Berson
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Nancy M Bonini
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
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47
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Trinucleotide repeats and protein folding and disease: the perspective from studies with the androgen receptor. Future Sci OA 2015; 1:FSO47. [PMID: 28031874 PMCID: PMC5137883 DOI: 10.4155/fso.15.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR), a ligand activated transcription factor plays a number of roles in reproduction, homeostasis and pathogenesis of disease. It has two major polymorphic sequences; a polyglutamine and a polyglycine repeat that determine the length of the protein and influence receptor folding, structure and function. Here, we review the role the folding of the AR plays in the pathogenesis of spinal-bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), a neuromuscular degenerative disease arising from expansion of the polyglutamine repeat. We discuss current management for SBMA patients and how research on AR structure function may lead to future drug treatments.
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48
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Todd TW, Kokubu H, Miranda HC, Cortes CJ, La Spada AR, Lim J. Nemo-like kinase is a novel regulator of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. eLife 2015; 4:e08493. [PMID: 26308581 PMCID: PMC4577982 DOI: 10.7554/elife.08493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a progressive neuromuscular disease caused by polyglutamine expansion in the androgen receptor (AR) protein. Despite extensive research, the exact pathogenic mechanisms underlying SBMA remain elusive. In this study, we present evidence that Nemo-like kinase (NLK) promotes disease pathogenesis across multiple SBMA model systems. Most remarkably, loss of one copy of Nlk rescues SBMA phenotypes in mice, including extending lifespan. We also investigated the molecular mechanisms by which NLK exerts its effects in SBMA. Specifically, we have found that NLK can phosphorylate the mutant polyglutamine-expanded AR, enhance its aggregation, and promote AR-dependent gene transcription by regulating AR-cofactor interactions. Furthermore, NLK modulates the toxicity of a mutant AR fragment via a mechanism that is independent of AR-mediated gene transcription. Our findings uncover a crucial role for NLK in controlling SBMA toxicity and reveal a novel avenue for therapy development in SBMA. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.08493.001 Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is an inherited disease that eventually leads to degeneration in motor neurons and weakness in muscles. It is caused by a specific genetic mutation in the gene that encodes the androgen receptor protein, which leads to the production of a mutant protein that is larger than normal. Similar mutations in other genes can lead to the development of other so-called ‘polyglutamine’ diseases such as Huntington's disease and spinocerebellar ataxia. However, the precise details of how these mutations lead to disease symptoms are not known, and there are currently no effective ways of treating these conditions. Previous research has shown that an enzyme called Nemo-like kinase (or NLK for short) regulates the normal androgen receptor in cancer cells. NLK has kinase activity, that is, it adds phosphate molecules to other proteins to regulate their activity. Todd et al. used human cells, fruit flies, and mice as model systems to investigate whether NLK is involved in the development of SBMA. The experiments show that NLK promotes the development of features associated with SBMA in all three models. The kinase activity of NLK is required for these features to develop. Todd et al. also found that NLK can bind to and add phosphate molecules to the mutant version of the androgen receptor protein. This causes the mutant androgen receptor proteins to accumulate and increases the ability of the mutant proteins to activate particular genes. Todd et al.'s findings suggest that NLK promotes the development of SBMA by interacting with the mutant androgen receptor. Previous studies have shown that NLK is able to modulate the development of spinocerebellar ataxia type 1, which suggests that NLK may also play an important role in other polyglutamine diseases. The next challenge will be to fully understand the role of NLK in these diseases, which may aid future efforts to develop new treatments. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.08493.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany W Todd
- Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Hiroshi Kokubu
- Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Helen C Miranda
- Departments of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Neurosciences, and Pediatrics, Division of Biological Sciences, Institute for Genomic Medicine, Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Constanza J Cortes
- Departments of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Neurosciences, and Pediatrics, Division of Biological Sciences, Institute for Genomic Medicine, Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Albert R La Spada
- Departments of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Neurosciences, and Pediatrics, Division of Biological Sciences, Institute for Genomic Medicine, Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, United States
| | - Janghoo Lim
- Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
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49
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Xu Z, Tito AJ, Rui YN, Zhang S. Studying polyglutamine diseases in Drosophila. Exp Neurol 2015; 274:25-41. [PMID: 26257024 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Revised: 08/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases are a family of dominantly transmitted neurodegenerative disorders caused by an abnormal expansion of CAG trinucleotide repeats in the protein-coding regions of the respective disease-causing genes. Despite their simple genetic basis, the etiology of these diseases is far from clear. Over the past two decades, Drosophila has proven to be successful in modeling this family of neurodegenerative disorders, including the faithful recapitulation of pathological features such as polyQ length-dependent formation of protein aggregates and progressive neuronal degeneration. Additionally, it has been valuable in probing the pathogenic mechanisms, in identifying and evaluating disease modifiers, and in helping elucidate the normal functions of disease-causing genes. Knowledge learned from this simple invertebrate organism has had a large impact on our understanding of these devastating brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Xu
- The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Antonio Joel Tito
- The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; Programs in Human and Molecular Genetics and Neuroscience, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Yan-Ning Rui
- The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Sheng Zhang
- The Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; Programs in Human and Molecular Genetics and Neuroscience, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States; The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), 1825 Pressler Street, Houston, TX 77030, United States.
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50
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Pennuto M, Greensmith L, Pradat PF, Sorarù G. 210th ENMC International Workshop: Research and clinical management of patients with spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy, 27-29 March, 2015, Naarden, The Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord 2015. [PMID: 26206601 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmd.2015.06.462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pennuto
- Dulbecco Telethon Institute Lab of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, Italy.
| | - Linda Greensmith
- The Graham Watts Laboratories for Research into Motor Neuron Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Pierre-François Pradat
- Département des Maladies du Système Nerveux, AP-HP, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, F-75013 Paris, France; UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, INSERM, Laboratoire d'Imagerie Biomédicale (LIB), Sorbonne Universités, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Gianni Sorarù
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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