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Racetin A, Filipović N, Lozić M, Ogata M, Gudelj Ensor L, Kelam N, Kovačević P, Watanabe K, Katsuyama Y, Saraga-Babić M, Glavina Durdov M, Vukojević K. A Homozygous Dab1 -/- Is a Potential Novel Cause of Autosomal Recessive Congenital Anomalies of the Mice Kidney and Urinary Tract. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11040609. [PMID: 33924028 PMCID: PMC8073787 DOI: 10.3390/biom11040609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to explore morphology changes in the kidneys of Dab1−/− (yotari) mice, as well as expression patterns of reelin, NOTCH2, LC3B, and cleaved caspase3 (CASP3) proteins, as potential determinants of normal kidney formation and function. We assumed that Dab1 functional inactivation may cause disorder in a wide spectrum of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT). Animals were sacrificed at postnatal days P4, P11, and P14. Paraffin-embedded kidney tissues were sectioned and analyzed by immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies. Kidney specimens were examined by bright-field, fluorescence, and electron microscopy. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA and t-tests. We noticed that yotari kidneys were smaller in size with a reduced diameter of nephron segments and thinner cortex. TEM microphotographs revealed foot process effacement in the glomeruli (G) of yotari mice, whereas aberrations in the structure of proximal convoluted tubules (PCT) and distal convoluted tubules (DCT) were not observed. A significant increase in reelin expression, NOTCH2, LC3B and cleaved CASP3 proteins was observed in the glomeruli of yotari mice. Renal hypoplasia in conjunction with foot process effacement and elevation in the expression of examined proteins in the glomeruli revealed CAKUT phenotype and loss of functional kidney tissue of yotari.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Racetin
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia; (A.R.); (N.F.); (M.L.); (L.G.E.); (N.K.); (M.S.-B.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
| | - Natalija Filipović
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia; (A.R.); (N.F.); (M.L.); (L.G.E.); (N.K.); (M.S.-B.)
| | - Mirela Lozić
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia; (A.R.); (N.F.); (M.L.); (L.G.E.); (N.K.); (M.S.-B.)
| | - Masaki Ogata
- Division of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Miyagi 981-8558, Japan;
| | - Larissa Gudelj Ensor
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia; (A.R.); (N.F.); (M.L.); (L.G.E.); (N.K.); (M.S.-B.)
| | - Nela Kelam
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia; (A.R.); (N.F.); (M.L.); (L.G.E.); (N.K.); (M.S.-B.)
| | - Petra Kovačević
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
| | - Koichiro Watanabe
- Department of Anatomy, Shiga University of Medical Science, Ötsu 520-2192, Japan; (K.W.); (Y.K.)
| | - Yu Katsuyama
- Department of Anatomy, Shiga University of Medical Science, Ötsu 520-2192, Japan; (K.W.); (Y.K.)
| | - Mirna Saraga-Babić
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia; (A.R.); (N.F.); (M.L.); (L.G.E.); (N.K.); (M.S.-B.)
| | | | - Katarina Vukojević
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, 21000 Split, Croatia; (A.R.); (N.F.); (M.L.); (L.G.E.); (N.K.); (M.S.-B.)
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-21-557-807; Fax: +385-1-557-811
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Imai H, Shoji H, Ogata M, Kagawa Y, Owada Y, Miyakawa T, Sakimura K, Terashima T, Katsuyama Y. Dorsal Forebrain-Specific Deficiency of Reelin-Dab1 Signal Causes Behavioral Abnormalities Related to Psychiatric Disorders. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:3485-3501. [PMID: 26762856 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhv334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Reelin-Dab1 signaling is involved in brain development and neuronal functions. The abnormalities in the signaling through either reduction of Reelin and Dab1 gene expressions or the genomic mutations in the brain have been reported to be associated with psychiatric disorders. However, it has not been clear if the deficiency in Reelin-Dab1 signaling is responsible for symptoms of the disorders. Here, to examine the function of Reelin-Dab1 signaling in the forebrain, we generated dorsal forebrain-specific Dab1 conditional knockout mouse (Dab1 cKO) and performed a behavioral test battery on the Dab1 cKO mice. Although conventional Dab1 null mutant mice exhibit cerebellar atrophy and cerebellar ataxia, the Dab1 cKO mice had normal cerebellum and showed no motor dysfunction. Dab1 cKO mice exhibited behavioral abnormalities, including hyperactivity, decreased anxiety-like behavior, and impairment of working memory, which are reminiscent of symptoms observed in patients with psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. These results suggest that deficiency of Reelin-Dab1 signal in the dorsal forebrain is involved in the pathogenesis of some symptoms of human psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideaki Imai
- Division of Developmental Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Shoji
- Division of Systems Medical Science, Institute for Comprehensive Medical Science, Fujita Health University, Toyoake 470-1192, Japan.,Japan Science and Technology Agency, Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
| | - Masaki Ogata
- Department of Organ Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yoshiteru Kagawa
- Department of Organ Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yuji Owada
- Department of Organ Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Miyakawa
- Division of Systems Medical Science, Institute for Comprehensive Medical Science, Fujita Health University, Toyoake 470-1192, Japan.,Japan Science and Technology Agency, Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan.,Center for Genetic Analysis of Behavior, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
| | - Kenji Sakimura
- Department of Cellular Neurobiology, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8585, Japan
| | - Toshio Terashima
- Division of Developmental Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Yu Katsuyama
- Division of Developmental Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe 650-0017, Japan.,Department of Organ Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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Gillespie AL, Samanaite R, Mill J, Egerton A, MacCabe JH. Is treatment-resistant schizophrenia categorically distinct from treatment-responsive schizophrenia? a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry 2017; 17:12. [PMID: 28086761 PMCID: PMC5237235 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-016-1177-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a highly heterogeneous disorder, and around a third of patients are treatment-resistant. The only evidence-based treatment for these patients is clozapine, an atypical antipsychotic with relatively weak dopamine antagonism. It is plausible that varying degrees of response to antipsychotics reflect categorically distinct illness subtypes, which would have significant implications for research and clinical practice. If these subtypes could be distinguished at illness onset, this could represent a first step towards personalised medicine in psychiatry. This systematic review investigates whether current evidence supports conceptualising treatment-resistant and treatment-responsive schizophrenoa as categorically distinct subtypes. METHOD A systematic literature search was conducted, using PubMed, EMBASE, PsycInfo, CINAHL and OpenGrey databases, to identify all studies which compared treatment-resistant schizophrenia (defined as either a lack of response to two antipsychotic trials or clozapine prescription) to treatment-responsive schizophrenia (defined as known response to non-clozapine antipsychotics). RESULTS Nineteen studies of moderate quality met inclusion criteria. The most robust findings indicate that treatment-resistant patients show glutamatergic abnormalities, a lack of dopaminergic abnormalities, and significant decreases in grey matter compared to treatment-responsive patients. Treatment-resistant patients were also reported to have higher familial loading; however, no individual gene-association study reported their findings surviving correction for multiple comparisons. CONCLUSIONS Tentative evidence supports conceptualising treatment-resistant schizophrenia as a categorically different illness subtype to treatment-responsive schizophrenia. However, research is limited and confirmation will require replication and rigorously controlled studies with large sample sizes and prospective study designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L. Gillespie
- Psychosis Studies Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF UK
| | - Ruta Samanaite
- Psychosis Studies Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF UK
| | - Jonathan Mill
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK ,University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter University, St Luke’s Campus, Exeter, UK
| | - Alice Egerton
- Psychosis Studies Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF UK
| | - James H. MacCabe
- Psychosis Studies Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF UK
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Evaluating the relationship between reelin gene variants (rs7341475 and rs262355) and schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Neurosci Lett 2015; 609:42-7. [PMID: 26455866 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Revised: 09/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Studies have suggested that reelin (RELN) polymorphism was associated with the susceptibility of schizophrenia (SZ), but the results remained controversial. Thus, we conducted this meta-analysis to determine whether RELN variants (rs7341475 and rs262355) were associated with SZ risk. Studies were identified through retrieving Web of Science, PubMed and Embase databases from inception to May 2015. The genotype data were extracted to calculate the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). For rs7341475, five studies with 4741 SZ patients and 10075 controls are included and the results indicate that carriage of A allele is associated with decreased SZ risk in dominant genetic model (OR=0.90, 95%CI=0.83-0.98) and additive model (OR=0.90, 95% CI=0.84-0.97). Subgroup analysis indicates that the association between rs7341475 and SZ is only significant in Caucasian. For rs262355, four studies with 2017 SZ patients and 3274 controls are included, the results demonstrate that carriage of A allele is associated with increased risk of SZ only in Caucasian (dominant model: OR=1.17, 95%CI=1.01-1.37; additive model OR=1.13, 95%CI=1.02-1.27). This meta-analysis suggests that rs7341475 (A/G) and rs262355 (A/T) polymorphisms in RELN gene are inversely associated with SZ risk.
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Jung JY, DeLuca TF, Nelson TH, Wall DP. A literature search tool for intelligent extraction of disease-associated genes. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2014; 21:399-405. [PMID: 23999671 PMCID: PMC3994846 DOI: 10.1136/amiajnl-2012-001563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To extract disorder-associated genes from the scientific literature in PubMed with greater sensitivity for literature-based support than existing methods. METHODS We developed a PubMed query to retrieve disorder-related, original research articles. Then we applied a rule-based text-mining algorithm with keyword matching to extract target disorders, genes with significant results, and the type of study described by the article. RESULTS We compared our resulting candidate disorder genes and supporting references with existing databases. We demonstrated that our candidate gene set covers nearly all genes in manually curated databases, and that the references supporting the disorder-gene link are more extensive and accurate than other general purpose gene-to-disorder association databases. CONCLUSIONS We implemented a novel publication search tool to find target articles, specifically focused on links between disorders and genotypes. Through comparison against gold-standard manually updated gene-disorder databases and comparison with automated databases of similar functionality we show that our tool can search through the entirety of PubMed to extract the main gene findings for human diseases rapidly and accurately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Yoon Jung
- Center for Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Todd F DeLuca
- Center for Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tristan H Nelson
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dennis P Wall
- Center for Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Folsom TD, Fatemi SH. The involvement of Reelin in neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuropharmacology 2013; 68:122-35. [PMID: 22981949 PMCID: PMC3632377 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 08/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Reelin is a glycoprotein that serves important roles both during development (regulation of neuronal migration and brain lamination) and in adulthood (maintenance of synaptic function). A number of neuropsychiatric disorders including autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, Alzheimer's disease and lissencephaly share a common feature of abnormal Reelin expression in the brain. Altered Reelin expression has been hypothesized to impair neuronal connectivity and synaptic plasticity, leading ultimately to the cognitive deficits present in these disorders. The mechanisms for abnormal Reelin expression in some of these disorders are currently unknown although possible explanations include early developmental insults, mutations, hypermethylation of the promoter for the Reelin gene (RELN), miRNA silencing of Reelin mRNA, FMRP underexpression and Reelin processing abnormalities. Increasing Reelin expression through pharmacological therapies may help ameliorate symptoms resulting from Reelin deficits. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Neurodevelopmental Disorders'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy D. Folsom
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - S. Hossein Fatemi
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware St SE, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Li W, Song X, Zhang H, Yang Y, Jiang C, Xiao B, Li W, Yang G, Zhao J, Guo W, Lv L. Association study of RELN polymorphisms with schizophrenia in Han Chinese population. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011; 35:1505-11. [PMID: 21549172 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2011] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SZ) is a common and complex psychiatric disorder with a strong genetic component. Previous research suggests that mutations altering genes in neurodevelopmental pathways contribute to SZ. Reelin gene (RELN) maps to chromosome 7q22.1, the encoded protein plays a pivotal role in guiding neuronal migration, lamination and connection during embryonic brain development. Several reports had indicated that reduced RELN expression is associated with human mental illnesses such as SZ, mood disorders and autism. In this study, case-control association analyses were performed in the Han Chinese population to determine if the RELN gene is a susceptibility gene for SZ. Thirty-seven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped in 528 paranoid SZ patients and 528 control subjects. A significant association was found between rs12705169 and SZ (p=0.001). Moreover, the haplotypes constructed from five SNPs showed significant differences between cases and controls (p=0.041). When subjects were divided by gender, rs12705169 remained significant difference only in females (OR=0.24, 95%CI=0.14-0.40 for CC and OR=0.40, 95%CI=0.27-0.58 for AC), both in the allele and genotype (p=0.0001 for both). This study describes a positive association between RELN and SZ in the Han Chinese population, and provides genetic evidence to support the gender difference of SZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqiang Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Henan Mental Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
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Lu L, Mamiya T, Koseki T, Mouri A, Nabeshima T. Genetic Animal Models of Schizophrenia Related with the Hypothesis of Abnormal Neurodevelopment. Biol Pharm Bull 2011; 34:1358-63. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.34.1358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lingling Lu
- The Academic Frontier Project for Private University, Comparative Cognitive Science Institute, Meijo University
- Department of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meijo University
| | - Takayoshi Mamiya
- The Academic Frontier Project for Private University, Comparative Cognitive Science Institute, Meijo University
- Department of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meijo University
- Japanese Drug Organization for Appropriate Use and Research
| | - Takenao Koseki
- The Academic Frontier Project for Private University, Comparative Cognitive Science Institute, Meijo University
- Department of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meijo University
| | - Akihiro Mouri
- The Academic Frontier Project for Private University, Comparative Cognitive Science Institute, Meijo University
- Department of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meijo University
- Japanese Drug Organization for Appropriate Use and Research
| | - Toshitaka Nabeshima
- The Academic Frontier Project for Private University, Comparative Cognitive Science Institute, Meijo University
- Department of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meijo University
- Japanese Drug Organization for Appropriate Use and Research
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Deutsch SI, Burket JA, Katz E. Does subtle disturbance of neuronal migration contribute to schizophrenia and other neurodevelopmental disorders? Potential genetic mechanisms with possible treatment implications. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2010; 20:281-7. [PMID: 20207112 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2010.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Revised: 01/22/2010] [Accepted: 02/03/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Pathways associated with genes that regulate neuronal migration by influencing the function of microtubules in the developing fetal brain may be interfered with as part of the "first-hit" of schizophrenia. In the fully-developed brain, these same pathways that impact microtubule function mediate at least some aspects of experience-dependent plasticity, which may also be impaired in schizophrenia. Whereas severe presentations of "lissencephaly" are associated with mutations and deletions of DISC1, LIS1 and the gene for the very low-density lipoprotein receptor, genetic variations of these loci are good candidate schizophrenia genes. Importantly, in the fully-developed brain, there is a possibility that at least some of the consequences of these disturbed genetic pathways that adversely affect microtubule function may be "bypassed" or mitigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA.
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Gregório SP, Sallet PC, Do KA, Lin E, Gattaz WF, Dias-Neto E. Polymorphisms in genes involved in neurodevelopment may be associated with altered brain morphology in schizophrenia: preliminary evidence. Psychiatry Res 2009; 165:1-9. [PMID: 19054571 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2007.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2006] [Revised: 07/16/2007] [Accepted: 08/18/2007] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
An abnormality in neurodevelopment is one of the most robust etiologic hypotheses in schizophrenia (SZ). There is also strong evidence that genetic factors may influence abnormal neurodevelopment in the disease. The present study evaluated in SZ patients, whose brain structural data had been obtained with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the possible association between structural brain measures, and 32 DNA polymorphisms, located in 30 genes related to neurogenesis and brain development. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood cells of 25 patients with schizophrenia, genotyping was performed using diverse procedures, and putative associations were evaluated by standard statistical methods (using the software Statistical Package for Social Sciences - SPSS) with a modified Bonferroni adjustment. For reelin (RELN), a protease that guides neurons in the developing brain and underlies neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity in adults, an association was found for a non-synonymous polymorphism (Val997Leu) with left and right ventricular enlargement. A putative association was also found between protocadherin 12 (PCDH12), a cell adhesion molecule involved in axonal guidance and synaptic specificity, and cortical folding (asymmetry coefficient of gyrification index). Although our results are preliminary, due to the small number of individuals analyzed, such an approach could reveal new candidate genes implicated in anomalous neurodevelopment in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila P Gregório
- Laboratório de Neurociências (LIM-27), Departmento e Instituto de Psiquiatria, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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11
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Kähler AK, Djurovic S, Kulle B, Jönsson EG, Agartz I, Hall H, Opjordsmoen S, Jakobsen KD, Hansen T, Melle I, Werge T, Steen VM, Andreassen OA. Association analysis of schizophrenia on 18 genes involved in neuronal migration: MDGA1 as a new susceptibility gene. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:1089-100. [PMID: 18384059 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence support the theory of schizophrenia (SZ) being a neurodevelopmental disorder. The structural, cytoarchitectural and functional brain abnormalities reported in patients with SZ, might be due to aberrant neuronal migration, since the final position of neurons affects neuronal function, morphology, and formation of synaptic connections. We have investigated the putative association between SZ and gene variants engaged in the neuronal migration process, by performing an association study on 839 cases and 1,473 controls of Scandinavian origin. Using a gene-wide approach, tagSNPs in 18 candidate genes have been genotyped, with gene products involved in the neuron-to-glial cell adhesion, interactions with the DISC1 protein and/or rearrangements of the cytoskeleton. Of the 289 markers tested, 19 markers located in genes MDGA1, RELN, ITGA3, DLX1, SPARCL1, and ASTN1, attained nominal significant P-values (P < 0.05) in either a genotypic or allelic association test. All of these genes, except transcription factor DLX1, are involved in the adhesion between neurons and radial glial cells. Eight markers obtained nominal significance in both tests, and were located in intronic or 3'UTR regions of adhesion molecule MDGA1 and previously reported SZ candidate RELN. The most significant result was attained for MDGA1 SNP rs9462341 (unadjusted association results: genotypic P = 0.00095; allelic P = 0.010). Several haplotypes within MDGA1, RELN, ITGA3, and ENAH were nominally significant. Further studies in independent samples are needed, including upcoming genome wide association study results, but our data suggest that MDGA1 is a new SZ susceptibility gene, and that altered neuronal migration is involved in SZ pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Kähler
- TOP Project, Institute of Psychiatry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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12
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Li H, Li Y, Shao J, Li R, Qin Y, Xie C, Zhao Z. The association analysis of RELN and GRM8 genes with autistic spectrum disorder in Chinese Han population. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:194-200. [PMID: 17955477 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The region on chromosome 7q stands out as the region of suggestive linkage to aetiology of autism with the greatest concordance in many independent genome-wide scans. RELN and GRM8, the two genes selected in this study, are located within this region. The protein products of both genes are considered to play a pivotal role in the development of the central nervous system. In addition, biochemical and neuroanatomical data indicated that RELN and GRM8 genes are likely involved in the pathogenesis of autistic disorder. Therefore, both RELN and GRM8 genes are considered to be not only the positional but also the functional candidate genes to autism for association research. In this study, we genotyped 12 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located within the RELN and GRM8 genes in 213 children with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) and 160 controls. A significant genetic association between SNP2 (located in intron 59 of RELN) and ASD was observed, and the log-additive model was accepted as the best inheritance model fitting this data (OR: 0.72, 95% CI: 0.54-0.97, P = 0.03). Haplotype-specific association analysis revealed that the result was consistent with the individual SNP study; the combination of SNP1/SNP2/SNP3/SNP4 which are in strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) (D' > 0.75) showed significant association with ASD (P = 0.027). Neither the single SNP nor the haplotype analysis showed significant association between ASD and the markers of GRM8 gene. Hence, our study suggested the possible involvement of RELN gene in the susceptibility to ASD. Future replications are warranted before definitive conclusion can be drawn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Li
- Department of Central Laboratory, Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
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13
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Shifman S, Johannesson M, Bronstein M, Chen SX, Collier DA, Craddock NJ, Kendler KS, Li T, O'Donovan M, O'Neill FA, Owen MJ, Walsh D, Weinberger DR, Sun C, Flint J, Darvasi A. Genome-wide association identifies a common variant in the reelin gene that increases the risk of schizophrenia only in women. PLoS Genet 2008; 4:e28. [PMID: 18282107 PMCID: PMC2242812 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.0040028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2007] [Accepted: 12/17/2007] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in schizophrenia are well known, but their genetic basis has not been identified. We performed a genome-wide association scan for schizophrenia in an Ashkenazi Jewish population using DNA pooling. We found a female-specific association with rs7341475, a SNP in the fourth intron of the reelin (RELN) gene (p = 2.9 x 10(-5) in women), with a significant gene-sex effect (p = 1.8 x 10(-4)). We studied rs7341475 in four additional populations, totaling 2,274 cases and 4,401 controls. A significant effect was observed only in women, replicating the initial result (p = 2.1 x 10(-3) in women; p = 4.2 x 10(-3) for gene-sex interaction). Based on all populations the estimated relative risk of women carrying the common genotype is 1.58 (p = 8.8 x 10(-7); p = 1.6 x 10(-5) for gene-sex interaction). The female-specific association between RELN and schizophrenia is one of the few examples of a replicated sex-specific genetic association in any disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sagiv Shifman
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kindgdom.
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14
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Hall H, Lawyer G, Sillén A, Jönsson EG, Agartz I, Terenius L, Arnborg S. Potential genetic variants in schizophrenia: a Bayesian analysis. World J Biol Psychiatry 2007; 8:12-22. [PMID: 17366345 DOI: 10.1080/15622970600892004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A number of different gene polymorphisms have been found to dispose for the development of schizophrenia. However, no single gene polymorphism is sufficient for the precipitation of schizophrenia. Swedish psychosis patients (n=103) and control subjects (n=89) were analyzed for 36 single nucleotide polymorphisms in 30 candidate genes for schizophrenia. Evidence of association was analyzed with Bayesian statistical methods. Variants in the genes coding for dopamine-D2 receptor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neuropeptide Y (NPY), neuregulin 1, reelin and synapsin 3 showed association with schizophrenia, although few subjects were found in the minority allele for the two latter variants. The six gene variants, all with suspected connection to schizophrenia, were found to be risk factors when considered in combination, but not separately. The results indicate that the Bayesian statistical method gives additional possibilities in the search for risk factors for schizophrenia or other complex disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håkan Hall
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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15
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Dutta S, Guhathakurta S, Sinha S, Chatterjee A, Ahmed S, Ghosh S, Gangopadhyay PK, Singh M, Usha R. Reelin gene polymorphisms in the Indian population: a possible paternal 5'UTR-CGG-repeat-allele effect on autism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2007; 144B:106-12. [PMID: 16941662 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder with high heritability factor and the reelin gene, which codes for an extracellular matrix protein involved with neuronal migration and lamination is being investigated as a positional and functional candidate gene for autism. It is located on chromosome 7q22 within the autism susceptible locus (AUTS1); identified in earlier genome scans and several investigations have been carried out on various ethnic groups to assess possible association and linkage of the gene with autism. However, the findings are still inconclusive. In the present study which represents the first report of such a study on the Indian population, genotyping analyses of CGG repeat polymorphism at 5'UTR, two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) at exon 6 and exon 50 were performed in 73 autistic subjects, 129 parents, and 80 controls. The allelic distributions of the repeat polymorphism and exon 50 T/C SNP were quite different from earlier reports in other populations. Allelic and genotypic distribution of the markers did not show any differences between the cases and controls. While our preliminary data on family-based association studies on 58 trios showed no preferential transmission of any allele from the parents to the affected offspring, TDT and HHRR analyses revealed significant paternal transmission distortions for 10- and > or =11-repeat alleles of CGG repeat polymorphism. Thus, the present study suggests that 5'UTR of reelin gene may have a role in the susceptibility towards autism with the paternal transmission and non-transmission respectively of 10- and > or =11-repeat alleles, to the affected offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Dutta
- Manovikas Biomedical Research & Diagnostic Centre, Kolkata, India
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16
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Chen J, Lipska BK, Weinberger DR. Genetic mouse models of schizophrenia: from hypothesis-based to susceptibility gene-based models. Biol Psychiatry 2006; 59:1180-8. [PMID: 16631133 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2005] [Revised: 12/19/2005] [Accepted: 02/22/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Translation of human genetic mutations into genetic mouse models is an important strategy to study the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, identify potential drug targets, and test new drugs for new antipsychotic treatments. Although it is impossible to recapitulate the full spectrum of schizophrenia symptoms in animal models, hypothesis-driven genetic mouse models have been successful in reproducing several schizophrenia-like behaviors and uncovering the roles of specific genes in dopamine and glutamine neurotransmission systems in mediating schizophrenia-like behaviors. Recent discoveries of susceptibility genes for schizophrenia and recognition of cognitive dysfunction as a core feature of schizophrenia and a phenotype of susceptibility for schizophrenia offer opportunities to develop newer genetic mouse models based on susceptibility. This new generation of genetic mouse models could shed light on the etiology of schizophrenia and lead us to new hypotheses, novel diagnostic tools, and more effective therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingshan Chen
- Clinical Brain Disorders Branch, Genes, Cognition and Psychosis Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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17
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Huang CH, Chen CH. Absence of association of a polymorphic GGC repeat at the 5' untranslated region of the reelin gene with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2006; 142:89-92. [PMID: 16556465 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2005.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2003] [Revised: 04/07/2004] [Accepted: 08/18/2005] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Reelin is an extracellular matrix glycoprotein that plays an important role in guiding neuronal migration, lamination and connection during embryonic brain development. Several reports suggest that reduced reelin expression is associated with human mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, mood disorders and autism. Human reelin cDNA has been cloned and contains a polymorphic GGC repeat at the 5' untranslated region. In view of the possible regulation of reelin gene expression by this GGC polymorphism, we investigated the association of the polymorphic GGC repeat with schizophrenia in a Chinese Han population from Taiwan. We found no differences of allelic and genotypic distributions of the polymorphic GGC triplets between 162 schizophrenic patients and 176 controls in this study. Our findings do not support the involvement of the polymorphic GGC triplets of the reelin gene in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia in the population studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Hsing Huang
- Graduate Institute of Human Genetics, Tzu Chi University, Hualien City, 970 Taiwan
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18
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Fatemi SH. Reelin glycoprotein in autism and schizophrenia. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2006; 71:179-87. [PMID: 16512351 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(05)71008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Hossein Fatemi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis 55455, USA
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19
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Goldberger C, Gourion D, Leroy S, Schürhoff F, Bourdel MC, Leboyer M, Krebs MO. Population-based and family-based association study of 5'UTR polymorphism of the reelin gene and schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005; 137B:51-5. [PMID: 15965968 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Reelin is a glycoprotein involved in the migration and positioning of proliferating neurons and synaptic connectivity during neurodevelopment. It may also modulate neuronal plasticity throughout life. Therefore, the reelin gene is a candidate gene for schizophrenia. We examined the association of the CGG repeat polymorphism in the 5'-untranslated region of the reelin gene with schizophrenia in 266 unrelated French Caucasian patients, 156 of their parents, and 103 controls. We found no difference in the allele distribution between patients and controls although there was a significant higher prevalence of the genotype 8-8 in controls (CLUMP T3: chi(2) = 6.3, P = 0.035). There was no significant transmission disequilibrium in intrafamilial analysis. To refine our phenotypic characterization and in accordance with converging evidence suggesting that treatment resistance is associated with indices of abnormal neurodevelopment, we studied the association between reelin gene polymorphism and response to antipsychotics. Patients who responded to antipsychotics had a higher frequency of both the (CGG)(10) allele and (CGG)(10)-containing genotypes (P = 0.02; P = 0.006, respectively), with an odd ratio for genotypes of 4.2 (CI = [1.4;12.4]). Our results weakly support an association of reelin gene variants with schizophrenia as a whole, yet suggest that reelin could be associated with treatment-resistant schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Goldberger
- INSERM E117, Université de Paris 5, CH Sainte-Anne, 2ter rue d'Alesia, Paris, France
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20
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Abstract
Reelin glycoprotein is a secretory serine protease with dual roles in mammalian brain: embryologically, it guides neurons and radial glial cells to their corrected positions in the developing brain; in adult brain, Reelin is involved in a signaling pathway which underlies neurotransmission, memory formation and synaptic plasticity. Disruption of Reelin signaling pathway by mutations and selective hypermethylation of the Reln gene promoter or following various pre- or postnatal insults may lead to cognitive deficits present in neuropsychiatric disorders like autism or schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Fatemi
- Division of Neuroscience Research, Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware Street, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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21
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Coyle JT. The GABA-glutamate connection in schizophrenia: which is the proximate cause? Biochem Pharmacol 2005; 68:1507-14. [PMID: 15451393 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2004.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a chronic, disabling psychiatric disorder that genetic studies have shown to be highly heritable. Although the dopamine hypothesis has dominated the thinking about the cause of schizophrenia for 40 years, post-mortem and genetic studies have provided little support for it. Rather, post-mortem studies point to hypofunction of subsets of GABAergic interneurons in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. Furthermore, clinical pharmacologic, post-mortem and genetic studies have provided compelling evidence of hypofunction of a subpopulation of NMDA receptors in schizophrenia. In support of this inference, agents that directly or indirectly activate the glycine modulatory site on the NMDA receptor (the Glycine B receptor) reduce symptoms in chronic schizophrenia, especially negative symptoms and cognitive impairments. Electrophysiologic and pharmacologic studies suggest that the vulnerable NMDA receptors in schizophrenia may be concentrated on cortico-limbic GABAergic interneurons, thereby linking these two neuropathologic features of the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph T Coyle
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
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22
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Knable MB, Barci BM, Webster MJ, Meador-Woodruff J, Torrey EF. Molecular abnormalities of the hippocampus in severe psychiatric illness: postmortem findings from the Stanley Neuropathology Consortium. Mol Psychiatry 2004; 9:609-20, 544. [PMID: 14708030 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Between 1997 and 2002, 48 data sets from the hippocampus were produced on samples from the Stanley Neuropathology Consortium. From these data sets, 224 total measures were available from the various subdivisions of the hippocampus. An integrative analysis of these measures was performed using a multivariate, nonparametric analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANOVA with correction for multiple comparisons indicated that parvalbumin-containing cells in CA2 were reduced in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. In addition, reelin protein in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus was decreased in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression at the trend level of statistical significance (P=0.065). These results strongly suggest a dysfunction of inhibitory GABA-ergic interneurons in severe mental illness. Without correction for multiple comparisons, 31 measures were abnormal in at least one disease, whereas 11 measures would be expected to appear abnormal by chance. Abnormal molecules included measures of synaptic density or neuronal plasticity (reelin, SNAP-25, BDNF, Complexin I and II), as well as parvalbumin, tyrosine receptor kinase A, glucocorticoid receptors, glutamate NR1 receptor subunits, serotonin 5HT2(A) and 5HT1(B) receptors, and dopamine D(5) receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Knable
- The Stanley Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
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23
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Salinger WL, Ladrow P, Wheeler C. Behavioral phenotype of the reeler mutant mouse: effects of RELN gene dosage and social isolation. Behav Neurosci 2004; 117:1257-75. [PMID: 14674845 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.117.6.1257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Reeler (rl/rl) and reeler/wild-type (+/rl) mice synthesize Reln at subnormal rates, as do patients with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism, thereby forming the basis for a Reln hypothesis for vulnerability to these psychopathologies and justifying attention to the behavioral phenotypes of Reln-deficient mice. Tests of gait, emotionality, social aggression, spatial working memory, novel-object detection, fear conditioning, and sensorimotor reflex modulation revealed the behavioral phenotype of rl/rl, but not +/rl, mice to be different from that of wild-type (+/+) mice. These results reveal no effect of Reln gene dosage and provide significant challenges to both the Reln and the neurodevelopmental hypotheses of the etiology of major psychopathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter L Salinger
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 27402-6170, USA.
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24
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Lugli G, Krueger JM, Davis JM, Persico AM, Keller F, Smalheiser NR. Methodological factors influencing measurement and processing of plasma reelin in humans. BMC BIOCHEMISTRY 2003; 4:9. [PMID: 12959647 PMCID: PMC200967 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2091-4-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2003] [Accepted: 09/07/2003] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reelin, intensively studied as an extracellular protein that regulates brain development, is also expressed in a variety of tissues and a circulating pool of reelin exists in adult mammals. Here we describe the methodological and biological foundation for carrying out and interpreting clinical studies of plasma reelin. RESULTS Reelin in human plasma was sensitive to proteolysis, freeze-thawing and heating during long-term storage, sample preparation and electrophoresis. Reelin in plasma was a dimer under denaturing conditions. Boiling of samples resulted in laddering, suggesting that each of the 8 repeats expressed in reelin contains a heat-labile covalent bond susceptible to breakage. Urinary-type and tissue-type plasminogen activator converted reelin to a discrete 310 kDa fragment co-migrating with the major immunoreactive reelin fragment seen in plasma and also detected in brain. (In contrast, plasmin produced a spectrum of smaller unstable reelin fragments.) We examined archival plasma of 10 pairs of age-matched male individuals differing in repeat length of a CGG repeat polymorphism of the 5'-untranslated region of the reelin gene (both alleles < 11 repeats vs. one allele having >11 repeats). Reelin 310 kDa band content was lower in subjects having the long repeats in all 10 pairs, by 25% on average (p < 0.001). In contrast, no difference was noted for amyloid precursor protein. CONCLUSIONS Our studies indicate the need for caution in measuring reelin in archival blood samples, and suggest that assays of plasma reelin should take into account three dimensions that might vary independently: a) the total amount of reelin protein; b) the relative amounts of reelin vs. its proteolytic processing products; and c) the aggregation state of the native protein. Reelin-plasminogen activator interactions may affect their roles in synaptic plasticity. Our results also suggest that the human CGG repeat polymorphism affects reelin gene expression, and may affect susceptibility to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Lugli
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, MC 912, 1601 W. Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - Jacqueline M Krueger
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, MC 912, 1601 W. Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - John M Davis
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, MC 912, 1601 W. Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
| | - Antonio M Persico
- Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry & Neurogenetics, University "Campus Bio-Medico", Via Longoni 83, 00155 Rome Italy
| | - Flavio Keller
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuroscience, University "Campus Bio-Medico", Via Longoni 83, 00155 Rome Italy
| | - Neil R Smalheiser
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Institute, University of Illinois at Chicago, MC 912, 1601 W. Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612 USA
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