Discovery of potent and selective phenylalanine derived CCR3 receptor antagonists. Part 2

5-alkyl-1,3-oxazole derivatives of 6-amino-nicotinic acids as alkyl ester bioisosteres are antagonists of the P2Y12 receptor

BACKGROUND

Recently, we reported ethyl nicotinates as antagonists of the P2Y12 receptor, which is an important target in antiplatelet therapies. A potential liability of these compounds was their generally high in vivo clearance due to ethyl ester hydrolysis.

RESULTS

Shape and electrostatic similarity matching was used to select five-membered heterocycles to replace the ethyl ester functionality. The 5-methyl and 5-ethyl-oxazole bioisosteres retained the sub-micromolar potency levels of the parent ethyl esters. Many oxazoles showed a higher CYP450 dependent microsomal metabolism than the corresponding ethyl esters. Structure activity relationship investigations supported by ab initio calculations suggested that a correctly positioned alkyl substituent and a strong hydrogen bond acceptor were necessary structural motifs for binding. In rat pharmacokinetics, the low clearance was retained upon replacement of an ethyl ester with a 5-ethyl-oxazole.

CONCLUSION

The use of shape and electrostatic similarity led to the successful replacement of a metabolically labile ethyl ester functionality with 5-alkyl-oxazole bioisosteres.

First pharmacophore model of CCR3 receptor antagonists and its homology model-assisted, stepwise virtual screening

CCR3, a G protein-coupled receptor, plays a central role in allergic inflammation and is an important drug target for inflammatory diseases. To understand the structure-function relationship of CCR3 receptor, different computational techniques were employed, which mainly include: (i) homology modeling of CCR3 receptor, (ii) 3D-quantitative pharmacophore model of CCR3 antagonists, (iii) virtual screening of small compound databases, and (iv) finally, molecular docking at the binding site of the CCR3 receptor homology model. Pharmacophore model was developed for the first time, on a training data set of 22 CCR3 antagonists, using CATALYST HypoRefine program. Best hypothesis (Hypo1) has three different chemical features: two hydrogen-bond acceptors, one hydrophobic, and one ring aromatic. Hypo1 model was further validated using (i) 87 test set CCR3 antagonists, (ii) Cat Scramble randomization technique, and (iii) Decoy data set. Molecular docking studies were performed on modeled CCR3 receptor using 303 virtually screened hits, obtained from small compound database virtual screening. Finally, five hits were identified as potential leads against CCR3 receptor, which exhibited good estimated activities, favorable binding interactions, and high docking scores. These studies provided useful information on the structurally vital residues of CCR3 receptor involved in the antagonist binding, and their unexplored potential for the future development of potent CCR3 receptor antagonists.

Small molecule antagonists for chemokine CCR3 receptors

The chemokine receptor CCR3 is believed to play a role in the development of allergic diseases such as asthma, atopic dermatitis, and allergic rhinitis. Despite the conflicting results that have been reported regarding the importance of eosinophils and CCR3 in allergic inflammation, inhibition of this receptor with small molecule antagonists is thought to provide a valuable approach for the treatment of these diseases. This review describes the structure-activity relationships (SAR) of small molecule CCR3 antagonists as reported in the scientific and patent literature. Various chemical classes of small molecule CCR3 antagonists have been described so far, including (bi)piperidine and piperazine derivatives, N-arylalkylpiperidine urea derivatives and (N-ureidoalkyl)benzylpiperidines, phenylalanine derivatives, morpholinyl derivatives, pyrrolidinohydroquinazolines, arylsulfonamides, amino-alkyl amides, imidazole- and pyrimidine-based antagonists, and bicyclic diamines. The (N-ureidoalkyl)benzylpiperidines are the best studied class in view of their generally high affinity and antagonizing potential. For many of these antagonists subnanomolar IC(50) values were reported for binding to CCR3 along with the ability to effectively inhibit intracellular calcium mobilization and eosinophil chemotaxis induced by CCR3 agonist ligands in vitro.

Recent Progress in the Catalytic Synthesis of Imidazoles

Imidazole is one of the important heteroaromatic compounds that have found a broad range of uses in, for example, pharmaceutical and industrial applications. Several conventional methodologies for the synthesis of imidazole rings are known; however, they are limited in terms of substrate generality and are not always efficient. Recent studies toward the development of catalytic reactions have brought significant improvements to the preparation of imidazoles. This Focus Review highlights the very recent progress in the catalytic synthesis of imidazoles, particularly those involving the formation of five-membered ring cores.

Pharmacological characterization of novel water-soluble cannabinoids

Presently, there are numerous structural classes of cannabinoid receptor agonists, all of which require solubilization for experimental purposes. One strategy for solubilizing water-insoluble tetrahydrocannabinols is conversion of the phenolic hydroxyl to a morpholinobutyryloxy substituent. The hydrochloride salts of these analogs are water-soluble and active in vivo when administered in saline. The present investigation demonstrated that hydrochloride salts of numerous substituted butyryloxy esters are water-soluble and highly potent. The substitutions include piperidine, piperazine, and alkyl-substituted amino moieties. It was also discovered that incorporation of a nitrogenous moiety in the alkyl side chain increased the pharmacological potency of tetrahydrocannabinol. For example, an analog containing a pyrazole in the side chain (O-2545) was found to have high affinity and efficacy at cannabinoid 1 (CB(1)) and CB(2) receptors, and when dissolved in saline, it was highly efficacious when administered either intravenously or intracerebroventricularly to mice. A series of carboxamido and carboxylic acid amide analogs exhibited high pharmacological potency, but their hydrochloride salts were not water-soluble. On the other hand, incorporation of imidazoles into the terminus of the side chain led to water-soluble hydrochloride salts that were highly potent when administered in saline to laboratory animals. It is now possible to conduct cannabinoid research with agonists that are water-soluble and thus obviating the need of solubilizing agents.

Identification and Characterization of a Potent, Selective Nonpeptide Agonist of the CC Chemokine Receptor CCR8

In this study, we report the first example of a nonpeptide chemokine receptor agonist, 2-{2-[4-(3-phenoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl]ethoxy}ethanol (ZK 756326), for the CC chemokine receptor CCR8. ZK 756326 inhibited the binding of the CCR8 ligand I-309 (CCL1), with an IC(50) value of 1.8 muM. Furthermore, ZK 756326 was a full agonist of CCR8, dose-responsively eliciting an increase in intracellular calcium and cross-desensitizing the response of the receptor to CCL1. In addition, ZK 756326 stimulated extracellular acidification in cells expressing human CCR8. The ability of ZK 756326 to induce a response was receptor-specific and mediated through Galpha(i), because it could be blocked by treatment with pertussis toxin. The CCR8 agonist activated cells expressing murine CCR8, eliciting their chemotaxis and inducing phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase ERK1/2. Like CCL1, ZK 756326 inhibited human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) fusion of cells expressing CD4 and CCR8. Finally, unlike mCCL1, ZK 756326 bound to and activated a form of mCCR8 that was mutated to eliminate O-linked sulfation at tyrosines 14 and 15. Therefore, ZK 756326 is most probably not binding in the same manner as CCL1 but can activate the switch mechanism involved in transducing signaling events. In summary, we have identified a nonpeptide agonist of CCR8. This compound may be useful in evaluating the physiological role of CCR8 in HIV infection, as well as in the general study of CCR8 biology without the constraints inherent to the use of protein agonists such as its natural ligand.

Synthesis of Trisubstituted Imidazoles by Palladium-Catalyzed Cyclization of O-Pentafluorobenzoylamidoximes: Application to Amino Acid Mimetics with a C-Terminal Imidazole

1-Benzyl-4-methylimidazoles with a range of substituents at the 2-position are prepared from O-pentafluorobenzoylamidoximes on treatment with catalytic amounts of Pd(PPh3)4 and triethylamine. The sequence provides access to optically active amino acid mimetics with a C-terminal imidazole. [structure: see text]

Involvement of eotaxin, eosinophils, and pancreatic predisposition in development of type 1 diabetes mellitus in the BioBreeding rat

Allergy and autoimmunity are both examples of deregulated immunity characterized by inflammation and injury of targeted tissues that have until recently been considered disparate disease processes. However, recent findings have implicated mast cells, in coordination with granulocytes and other immune effector cells, in the pathology of these two disorders. The BioBreeding (BB) DRlyp/lyp rat develops an autoimmune insulin-dependent diabetes similar to human type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), whereas the BBDR+/+ rat does not. To better understand immune processes during development of T1DM, gene expression profiling at day (d) 40 (before insulitis) and d65 (before disease onset) was conducted on pancreatic lymph nodes of DRlyp/lyp, DR+/+, and Wistar-Furth (WF) rats. The eosinophil-recruiting chemokine, eotaxin, and the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcepsilonRI) were up-regulated >5-fold in d65 DRlyp/lyp vs d65 DR+/+ pancreatic lymph nodes by microarray (p < 0.05) and quantitative RT-PCR studies (p < 0.05). DR+/+, WF, and d40 DRlyp/lyp animals possessed normal pancreatic histology; however, d65 DRlyp/lyp animals possessed eosinophilic insulitis. Therefore, immunohistochemistry for pancreatic eotaxin expression was conducted, revealing positive staining of d65 DRlyp/lyp islets. Islets of d65 DR+/+ rats also stained positively, consistent with underlying diabetic predisposition in the BB lineage, whereas WF islets did not. Other differentially expressed transcripts included those associated with eosinophils, mast cells, and lymphocytes. These data support an important role for these inflammatory mediators in BB rat T1DM and suggest that the lymphopenia due to the Ian5/(lyp) mutation may result in a deregulation of cells involved in insulitis and beta cell destruction.

Chemokine receptor antagonists: a novel therapeutic approach in allergic diseases

The aim of this review is to give an overview of the role of chemokines, particularly ligands of the CC chemokine receptor CCR3, in allergic diseases and to show the new concept in the treatment of allergies using chemokine receptor antagonists. Allergic diseases such as allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis and atopic dermatitis are characterized by a complex interaction of different cell types and mediators. Among this, Th2 cells, mast cells, basophils and eosinophils are found in the inflamed tissue due to the attraction of chemokines. Of all the known chemokine receptors, the chemokine receptor CCR3 seems to play the major role in allergic diseases which is supported by the detection of this receptor on the cell types mentioned above. Therefore, academic and industrial research focus on compounds to block this receptor. To date, certain chemokine receptor antagonists derived from peptides and small molecules exist to block the chemokine receptor CCR3. However, the in vivo data about these compounds and the mechanisms of receptor interaction are poorly understood, as yet. For the development of additional chemokine receptor antagonists, more details about the interaction between the ligands and their receptors are required. Therefore, additional studies will lead to the identification of novel CCR3 chemokine receptor antagonists, which can be therapeutically used in allergic asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis.

G protein-coupled receptors: in silico drug discovery in 3D

The application of structure-based in silico methods to drug discovery is still considered a major challenge, especially when the x-ray structure of the target protein is unknown. Such is the case with human G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), one of the most important families of drug targets, where in the absence of x-ray structures, one has to rely on in silico 3D models. We report repeated success in using ab initio in silico GPCR models, generated by the predict method, for blind in silico screening when applied to a set of five different GPCR drug targets. More than 100,000 compounds were typically screened in silico for each target, leading to a selection of <100 "virtual hit" compounds to be tested in the lab. In vitro binding assays of the selected compounds confirm high hit rates, of 12-21% (full dose-response curves, Ki < 5 microM). In most cases, the best hit was a novel compound (New Chemical Entity) in the 1- to 100-nM range, with very promising pharmacological properties, as measured by a variety of in vitro and in vivo assays. These assays validated the quality of the hits as lead compounds for drug discovery. The results demonstrate the usefulness and robustness of ab initio in silico 3D models and of in silico screening for GPCR drug discovery.

Chemokine receptor antagonism as an approach to anti-inflammatory therapy: 'just right' or plain wrong?

Inflammation plays a pivotal role in exacerbating a wide array of human diseases. The chemokines are a group of proteins that control the movement and activation of the immune cells involved in all aspects of the inflammatory response. Recently, their cognate receptors have attracted considerable interest as therapeutic targets, in part because they are G-protein-coupled receptors, which have been antagonized successfully before by the pharmaceutical industry. Indeed, several companies have now reported the development of selective small-molecule chemokine receptor antagonists, and some of these compounds have even entered human Phase I clinical trials. Preclinical studies of the responsiveness of murine models of inflammation to either pharmacologic or genetic intervention have suggested that antagonism of some chemokine receptors may well prove to be a safe and efficacious approach to anti-inflammatory therapy.

CCR3 antagonists: a potential new therapy for the treatment of asthma. Discovery and structure-activity relationships

CCR3 antagonist leads with IC(50) values in the microM range were converted into low nM binding compounds that displayed in vitro inhibition of human eosinophil chemotaxis induced by human eotaxin. In particular, 4-benzylpiperidin-1-yl-n-propylureas and erythro-3-(4-benzyl-2-(alpha-hydroxyalkyl)piperidin-1-yl)-n-propylureas (obtained via Beak reaction of N-BOC-4-benzylpiperidine) exhibited single digit nanomolar IC(50) values for CCR3.

New therapeutics that modulate chemokine networks

Chemokines are small cytokines that control a wide variety of biological and pathological processes, from immunosurveillance to inflammation, and from viral infection to cancer. The numerous known chemokine receptors have given hope that selective receptor antagonism might be possible, which could allow us to control which cells are recruited and activated at any time and in any place. As chemokine receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors, which are classical targets for the pharmaceutical industry, it is hoped that chemokines could be the first cytokines for which small-molecule receptor antagonists could be developed. Recently, reports of chemokine-receptor antagonists, both in vitro and in animal models of disease, have been published. It is anticipated that this field could produce clinically useful therapies in the next few years.