Characterization and molecular cloning of a glutathione S-transferase gene from the tick, Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)

Elucidating structure and dynamics of glutathione S-transferase from Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is tick parasite that affects the cattle industry worldwide. In R. (B.) microplus, acaricide resistance develops rapidly against many commercial acaricides. One of main resistance strategies is to enhance the metabolic detoxification mediated by R. (B.) microplus glutathione-S-transferase (RmGST). RmGST detoxifies acaricides by catalyzing the conjugation of glutathione to acaricides. Although structural and dynamic details of RmGST are expected to elucidate the biologic activity of this molecule, these data have not been available to date. Thus, Molecular Dynamics simulations were employed to study ligand-free RmGST at an atomic level. Like other m-class GSTs, the flexible m loop (m1) of RmGST was observed. M1 seems to shield the active sites from the bulk. A RmGST dimer is stabilized by the lock-and-key motif (F57 as "key") and hydrogen bonds of R82-E91 and R82-D98 at the dimer interface. Without substrates, conserved catalytic Y116 and N209 can interact with V112, G210 (for Y116) and F215 (for N209). Overall, most residues involving in RmGST function and stability are similar to other m-class GSTs. This implies similar structural stability and catalytic activity of RmGST to other GSTs. An insight obtained here will be useful for management of acaricide resistance and tick control.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Observing How Glutathione and S-Hexyl Glutathione Bind to Glutathione S-Transferase from Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is one of the most widespread ticks causing a massive loss to livestock production. The long-term use of acaracides rapidly develops acaracide resistance. In R. microplus, enhancing the metabolic activity of glutathione S-transferase (RmGST) is one of the mechanisms underlying acaracide resistance. RmGST catalyzes the conjugation of glutathione (GSH) to insecticides causing an easy-to-excrete conjugate. The active RmGST dimer contains two active sites (hydrophobic co-substrate binding site (H-site) and GSH binding site (G-site)) in each monomer. To preserve the insecticide efficacy, s-hexyl glutathione (GTX), a GST inhibitor, has been used as a synergist. To date, no molecular information on the RmGST-GSH/GTX complex is available. The insight is important for developing a novel RmGST inhibitor. Therefore, in this work, molecular dynamics simulations (MD) were performed to explore the binding of GTX and GSH to RmGST. GSH binds tighter and sits rigidly inside the G-site, while flexible GTX occupies both active sites. In GSH, the backbone mainly interacts with W8, R43, W46, K50, N59, L60, Q72, and S73, while its thiol group directs to Y7. In contrast, the aliphatic hexyl of GTX protrudes into the H-site and allows a flexible peptide core to form various interactions. Such high GTX flexibility and the protrusion of its hexyl moiety to the H-site suggest the dual role of GTX in preventing the conjugation reaction and the binding of acaracide. This insight can provide a better understanding of an important insecticide-resistance mechanism, which may in turn facilitate the development of novel approaches to tick control.

Vaccine approaches applied to controlling dog ticks

Ticks are considered the most important vectors in veterinary medicine with a profound impact on animal health worldwide, as well as being key vectors of diseases affecting household pets. The leading strategy applied to dog tick control is the continued use of acaricides. However, this approach is not sustainable due to surging tick resistance, growing public concern over pesticide residues in food and in the environment, and the rising costs associated with their development. In contrast, tick vaccines are a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative against tick-borne diseases by controlling vector infestations and reducing pathogen transmission. These premises have encouraged researchers to develop an effective vaccine against ticks, with several proteins having been characterized and used in native, synthetic, and recombinant forms as antigens in immunizations. The growing interaction between domestic pets and people underscores the importance of developing new tick control measures that require effective screening platforms applied to vaccine development. However, as reviewed in this paper, very little progress has been made in controlling ectoparasite infestations in pets using the vaccine approach. The control of tick infestations and pathogen transmission could be obtained through immunization programs aimed at reducing the tick population and interfering in the pathogenic transmission that affects human and animal health on a global scale.

Caracterization of glutathione S-transferase of Dermacantor marginatus and effect of the recombinant antigen as a potential anti-tick vaccine

Dermacentor marginatus is one of the main tick species in northwestern China, and is a vector of various tick-borne pathogens. Tick control method largely depends on chemical agents, but the disadvantages of using such approach would cause environmental damage and the risk of developing tick resistance to acaricides. Vaccination of tick protective antigen is an eco-friendly approach which is an alternative and promising method to mitigate tick infestation in livestock. In the study, a mu-class glutathione S-transferase (GST) sequence of D. marginatus was cloned and the recombinant protein (rDmGST) was expressed. Transcriptional level of the GST was measured together with native GST activity of the tick. Finally, A vaccine trial on rabbits against D. marginatus was proceeded to evaluate the anti-tick effect of rDmGST. Results reveled that the CDs of the D. margiantus glutathione S-transferase mu 1 gene has 669 base pair nucleotide sequence encoding a 223 amino acid. The deduced GST protein sequence had over 95 % similarity with that of D. variabilis. The rDmGST was efficiently expressed soluble and purified by His trap affinity chromatography. Enzyme activity of native GST and transcriptional profiles of the GST showed up-regulation in different stages and organs of D. marginaus during blood feeding. Polyclonal antibody reacted with rDmGST in Western blotting. Tick challenge on rDmGST inoculated rabbits showed reductions in adult female engorgement rate, total egg mass and egg hatching rate with an overall vaccine efficacy of 43.69 %. The results of the experiment indicated the GST has potential value to be an effective protective antigen of D. marginatus.

Molecular detection of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus resistance against deltamethrin in middle Egypt

This study was designed to investigate the susceptibility/resistance of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus to commercial deltamethrin 5%. The work was based on in vitro bioassays; adult immersion test (AIT) and larval packet test (LPT). Fully engorged female ticks were collected from 11 locations in Beni-Suef Governorate, Egypt (Alfashin, Eminelaros, Ehnasia, Smusta, Belifia, Aldiabia, Alhalabia, Beshnna, Alkom, Nasr and Beba). Two concentrations of commercial deltamethrin 5% (200 and 400 ppm) were tested by AIT on R. (B.) annulatus. The mortality of ticks at 400 ppm was higher than 200 ppm which was not reached to 100%. Ehnasia tick population was the least susceptible to deltamethrin while Alfashin population was the most susceptible one. Different deltamethrin concentrations (0.000625, 0.00125, 0.0025, 0.005, 0.010 and 0.020) were used in LPT to evaluate the larval mortality. The highest LC₅₀ appeared in Ehanasia tick population (0.01) with 95% confidence interval (0.005 to 0.01) meanwhile, the lowest LC₅₀ appeared in Alfashin (0.0006) with 95%CI (0.0005 to 0.0007). Thus, it is possible to deduce that one population was considered susceptible; seven populations were resistant level I and three populations were resistant level II. Additionally, PCR revealed that the resistant alleles (R) appeared in two localities (Ehnasia and Aldiabia). It was concluded that at least two tick populations of the investigated locations were of possible resistant to deltamethrin.

Inducible glutathione S-transferase (IrGST1) from the tick Ixodes ricinus is a haem-binding protein

Blood-feeding parasites are inadvertently exposed to high doses of potentially cytotoxic haem liberated upon host blood digestion. Detoxification of free haem is a special challenge for ticks, which digest haemoglobin intracellularly. Ticks lack a haem catabolic mechanism, mediated by haem oxygenase, and need to dispose of vast majority of acquired haem via its accumulation in haemosomes. The knowledge of individual molecules involved in the maintenance of haem homeostasis in ticks is still rather limited. RNA-seq analyses of the Ixodes ricinus midguts from blood- and serum-fed females identified an abundant transcript of glutathione S-transferase (gst) to be substantially up-regulated in the presence of red blood cells in the diet. Here, we have determined the full sequence of this encoding gene, ir-gst1, and found that it is homologous to the delta-/epsilon-class of GSTs. Phylogenetic analyses across related chelicerates revealed that only one clear IrGST1 orthologue could be found in each available transcriptome from hard and soft ticks. These orthologues create a well-supported clade clearly separated from other ticks' or mites' delta-/epsilon-class GSTs and most likely evolved as an adaptation to tick blood-feeding life style. We have confirmed that IrGST1 expression is induced by dietary haem(oglobin), and not by iron or other components of host blood. Kinetic properties of recombinant IrGST1 were evaluated by model and natural GST substrates. The enzyme was also shown to bind haemin in vitro as evidenced by inhibition assay, VIS spectrophotometry, gel filtration, and affinity chromatography. In the native state, IrGST1 forms a dimer which further polymerises upon binding of excessive amount of haemin molecules. Due to susceptibility of ticks to haem as a signalling molecule, we speculate that the expression of IrGST1 in tick midgut functions as intracellular buffer of labile haem pool to ameliorate its cytotoxic effects upon haemoglobin intracellular hydrolysis.

Characterization and expression analysis of a newly identified glutathione S-transferase of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis during blood-feeding

Background

Ticks are obligate hematophagous parasites important economically and to health. Ticks consume large amounts of blood for their survival and reproduction; however, large amounts of iron in blood could lead to oxidative stress. Ticks use several molecules such as glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), ferritins, and peroxiredoxins to cope with oxidative stress. This study aimed to identify and characterize the GSTs of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis in order to determine if they have a role in coping with oxidative stress.

Methods

Genes encoding GSTs of H. longicornis were isolated from the midgut CDNA library. Genes have been cloned and recombinant GSTs have been expressed. The enzymatic activities, enzyme kinetic constants, and optimal pH of the recombinant GSTs toward 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) were determined. The gene transcription and protein expression profiles were determined in the whole ticks and internal organs, and developmental stages using real time RT-PCR and Western blotting during blood feeding. The localization of GST proteins in organs was also observed using immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT).

Results

We have isolated two genes encoding GSTs (HlGST and HlGST2). The enzymatic activity toward CDNB is 9.75 ± 3.04 units/mg protein for recombinant HlGST and 11.63 ± 4.08 units/mg protein for recombinant HlGST2. Kinetic analysis of recombinant HlGST showed K_m values of 0.82 ± 0.14 mM and 0.64 ± 0.32 mM for the function of CDNB and GSH, respectively. Meanwhile, recombinant HlGST2 has K_m values of 0.61 ± 0.20 mM and 0.53 ± 0.02 mM for the function of CDNB and GSH, respectively. The optimum pH of recombinant HlGST and recombinant HlGST2 activity was 7.5–8.0. Transcription of both GSTs increases in different developmental stages and organs during blood-feeding. GST proteins are upregulated during blood-feeding but decreased upon engorgement in whole ticks and in some organs, such as the midgut and hemocytes. Interestingly, salivary glands, ovaries, and fat bodies showed decreasing protein expression during blood-feeding to engorgement. Varying localization of GSTs in the midgut, salivary glands, fat bodies, ovaries, and hemocytes was observed depending on the feeding state, especially in the midgut and salivary glands.

Conclusions

In summary, a novel GST of H. longicornis has been identified. Characterization of the GSTs showed that GSTs have positive correlation with the degree and localization of oxidative stress during blood-feeding. This could indicate their protective role during oxidative stress.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2667-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Gut transcriptome analysis on females of Ornithodoros mimon (Acari: Argasidae) and phylogenetic inference of ticks

Abstract Ornithodoros mimon is an argasid tick that parasitizes bats, birds and opossums and is also harmful to humans. Knowledge of the transcripts present in the tick gut helps in understanding the role of vital molecules in the digestion process and parasite-host relationship, while also providing information about the evolution of arthropod hematophagy. Thus, the present study aimed to know and ascertain the main molecules expressed in the gut of argasid after their blood meal, through analysis on the gut transcriptome of engorged females of O. mimon using 454-based RNA sequencing. The gut transcriptome analysis reveals several transcripts associated with hemoglobin digestion, such as serine, cysteine, aspartic proteases and metalloenzymes. The phylogenetic analysis on the peptidases confirmed that most of them are clustered with other tick genes. We recorded the presence a cathepsin O peptidase-coding transcript in ticks. The topology of the phylogenetic inferences, based on transcripts of inferred families of homologues, was similar to that of previous reports based on mitochondrial genome and nuclear rRNA sequences. We deposited 2,213 sequence of O. mimon to the public databases. Our findings may help towards better understanding of important argasid metabolic processes, such as digestion, nutrition and immunity.

Esterase mediated resistance in deltamethrin resistant reference tick colony of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

Monitoring of acaricide resistance is considered as one of the important facets of integrated tick management. In an attempt of development of resistance monitoring indicators, in the present study two reference tick lines of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus maintained in the Entomology laboratory, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, India, were studied to determine the possible contributing factors involved in development of resistance to deltamethrin. Electrophoretic profiling of esterase enzymes detected high activities of EST-1 in reference resistant tick colony designated as IVRI-IV whereas it was not detectable in reference susceptible IVRI-I line of R. (B.) microplus. Esterases were further characterized as carboxylesterase or acetylcholinesterase based on inhibitor study using PMSF, eserine sulphate, malathion, TPP and copper sulphate. It was concluded that an acetylcholinesterase, EST-1, possibly plays an important role for development of deltamethrin resistance in IVRI-IV colony of R. (B.) microplus.

Esterase and glutathione S-transferase levels associated with synthetic pyrethroid resistance in Hyalomma anatolicum and Rhipicephalus microplus ticks from Punjab, India

Larval packet test was used for assessment of resistance status against cypermethrin and deltamethrin in Hyalomma anatolicum and Rhipicephalus microplus from various districts of Punjab (India). Among the various field isolates of H. anatolicum susceptible status was recorded against cypermethrin in all isolates, whereas against deltamethrin resistance status (level I-III) was recorded. In R. microplus lower resistance levels (I-II) were recorded against cypermethrin in comparison to deltamethrin (level I-IV). Quantitative analysis of general esterase activity revealed a range of 4.21 ± 0.46 to 6.05 ± 0.55 and 2.23 ± 0.23 to 2.66 ± 0.24 µmol/min/mg protein for α- and β-esterase activity, respectively, in different field isolates of H. anatolicum and the increase in comparison to susceptible was not significant (P > 0.05). In contrast to H. anatolicum, the α- and β-esterase activity in all field isolates (except Jalandhar) of R. microplus was higher (range of 3.89 ± 0.26 to 10.85 ± 0.47 and 1.75 ± 0.08 to 5.87 ± 0.29 µmol/min/mg protein, respectively) (P < 0.001). The glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity in field isolates of H. anatolicum and R. microplus was in the range of 0.01 ± 0.001 to 0.03 ± 0.001 and 0.02 ± 0.0003 to 0.03 ± 0.001 mM/mg/min. The enzyme ratios (α-and β-esterase and GST) and RR95 against deltamethrin of H. anatolicum isolates were correlated (P < 0.05), whereas in R. microplus only α-and β-esterase and RR50 against deltamethrin were correlated (P < 0.05).

Glutathione S-transferase affects permethrin detoxification in the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus

Control of ticks on dogs is often done by application of repellents that contain permethrin as the active ingredient. In this research, we studied the role of a glutathione S-transferase (GST) gene in detoxification of permethrin by ticks using a gene silencing method RNA interference (RNAi). The brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, used in these studies, has a notable host preference for dogs, but also infests other mammals. In this research, R. sanguineus females were injected with gst double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) to effect gene silencing by RNAi and then exposed to sublethal doses of permethrin. Sixty hours after injection, the females were allowed to feed on sheep. The female ticks subjected to RNAi proved to be more susceptible to permethrin than the untreated controls. The effect of gene silencing was most notable in the highest dose group (50.3 ppm) in which all ticks died, while in the corresponding controls that were not subjected to RNAi this dose was not lethal. The acaricide treatment of the ticks resulted in a change in tick attachment behavior. Acaricide-treated ticks attached in a scattered pattern in contrast to the control ticks that attached and fed tightly clustered together. The time required for repletion for both the injected and non-injected females exposed to the higher permethrin level was shorter than that observed in the lower-dose groups and unexposed controls, and this more rapid attachment and feeding would likely favor more rapid transmission of pathogens. However, engorgement and egg mass weights were not significantly different among the experimental groups. This research demonstrated that the silencing of the gst gene increased the tick's susceptibility to permethrin. Overall, these results have contributed to our understanding of the detoxification mechanism of ticks and provide new considerations for the formulation of treatment strategies.

Characterization of the pyrethroid resistance profile of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus)microplus populations from the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

Cattle ticks Rhipicephalus(Boophilus) microplus are mainly controlled in Brazil by means of acaricide products, without any official policies in this regard. Acaricides continue to be sold indiscriminately, and this has contributed towards making the problem of resistance widespread, thus making diagnosis and monitoring of tick resistance essential. Here, bioassays (larval packet test) were performed on tick populations from the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Mato Grosso do Sul regarding their susceptibility to cypermethrin, deltamethrin and flumethrin. All the tick samples tested showed resistance to cypermethrin (10) (resistance factor (RF) ranging from 5.6 to 80.3) and deltamethrin (10) (RF ranging from 2.4 to 83.1). Six out of eight populations were resistant to flumethrin (RF ranging from 3.8 to 8.2). PCR molecular analyses did not show any T2134A mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene, in any of the sampled populations. The results from this study highlight the critical status of resistance of the cattle tick to synthetic pyrethroids in the regions studied. Further studies are needed to identify the mechanisms responsible for the resistant phenotypes observed in the bioassays. This was the first detection of flumethrin resistance in Brazil.

Understanding the genetic, demographical and/or ecological processes at play in invasions: lessons from the southern cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)

The southern cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, is the ixodid species causing the largest economic losses in tropical agrosystems because of its recurrent invasive success, explosive demography on bovine herds, vector competence for diverse pathogens and frequent development of acaricide resistance. Its ecology and the physiological bases of the acaricide resistances it developed, as well as alternative tick control measures, have been intensively studied for decades. By contrast, the tick population genetic structure and its remarkable ability to quickly adapt to new environments have not yet received much attention. We investigated such issues using population genetics analyses in the recently invaded island New Caledonia. In this paper we aim to describe some guidelines for acarologists willing to investigate the processes at play in Acari invasions. Particular emphasis is given to the accuracy of sampling designs and sampling scales for population genetics to be actually informative on the demographical processes of the species (i.e., its mating rules, the determinants of population limits, population sizes, the relationships between genetic exchanges and geographical distances and relevant ecological factors).

Purification and partial characterization of glutathione S-transferases from three field populations of Panonychus citri (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) play central roles in phase II detoxification of both xenobiotics (drugs, insecticides, and herbicides) and endogenous compounds in almost all living organisms. In this study, we successfully purified the GSTs from the citrus red mite, Panonychus citri, by affinity chromatography on Glutathione Sepharose 4B and compared the biochemical characterizations of the purified GSTs from three field populations [beibei (BB), wanzhou (WZ), and zhongxian (ZX)]. SDS-PAGE revealed that the molecular weight of GSTs from three populations consisted of two subunits of 27.3 and 26.1 kDa. The specific activity of the purified GSTs from the WZ and ZX populations was increased 1.5- and 3.8-fold, respectively, compared with the BB population. Accordingly, the pyridaben susceptibility of WZ and ZX populations was less compared with BB population. Kinetic analyses showed that the WZ and ZX populations had higher substrate specificity compared with the BB population based on the values of k (cat) and k (cat) /K (m) to both reduced glutathione (GSH) and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB). The in vitro inhibition studies of GSTs indicated that the I (50) values of pyridaben from WZ and ZX populations of P. citri expressed 1.6- and 4.4-fold decreases, respectively, compared to the I (50) value of pyridaben from the BB population. In conclusion, all evidence suggested that the purified GSTs may partially contribute to the susceptibility of acaricide pyridaben in field populations of P. citri.

[Expression and enzymatic activity of glutathione s-transferase in tissues of Boophilus microplus females]

Cellular detoxification and excretion enzymes are important to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. In this work mRNA transcription, protein expression and enzymatic activity of Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), enzymes involved in the excretion of endo and xenobiotic compounds were analyzed. These parameters are elements believed to protect cells against chemical toxicity and oxidative stress in different tissues (salivary gland, ovary and synganglion) from partially engorged females and engorged females of Boophilus microplus. The results presented showed elevated GST activity in partially engorged females. The enzymatic activity decreased during the preoviposition period in engorged females. GST mRNA transcription was detected in salivary glands and synganglion from partially engorged and engorged females, but not in ovary. The results of this work help to elucidate the role of GST in tick development and assist in the understanding of the importance of GST in tick females during the preparation for oviposition.

Effect of acaricides on the activity of glutathione transferases from the parasitic mite Sarcoptes scabiei

Glutathione transferases (GSTs) are a family of multifunctional enzymes with fundamental roles in cellular detoxication. Here we report the molecular characterization of 3 recombinant GSTs belonging to the mu- and delta-class from the parasitic mite Sarcoptes scabiei. Kinetic constants were determined, and the effect of acaricides, including organothiophosphates, pyrethroid esters, a formamidine, a macrocyclic lactone, an organochlorine as well as a bridged diphenyl acaricide, on the activity of the GSTs were tested using 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) as model substrate. Our results showed that enzymes from the same class and with high amino acid sequence identity have significantly different kinetic properties. For instance, one mu-class GST lost more than 50% of its activity in the presence of one of the organothiophosphates while the activity of the second mu-class GST was only slightly reduced under identical conditions. Tertiary structure modulations indicated that structural differences were the crucial factor for the different kinetic patterns observed. Genome analysis showed that the two mu-class GSTs are organized in tandem in the S. scabiei genome. Taken together these results show that GSTs might be involved in the metabolism of acaricides in S. scabiei.

Founder effects, inbreeding and effective sizes in the Southern cattle tick: the effect of transmission dynamics and implications for pest management

Since its immigration in the Pacific island of New Caledonia in 1942 (i.e. about 240 tick-generations ago), the cattle tick Boophilus microplus has experienced a remarkable adaptive diversification there. In order to better understand the population factors involved, we have investigated the B. microplus population structure on that main host-species, Bos taurus. This study was based microsatellite loci and confirmed that the island colonization came along with a significant bottleneck. Knowledge on B. microplus biology led us to expect B. microplus populations to be composed of highly inbred lineages irregularly dispatched among the individual hosts belonging to the same herds. Instead, this study evidenced a weak inbreeding level and an absence of genetic differentiation within herds. Complementarily, a significant signal of isolation by distance exhibited that human-traffic of cattle does not promote high tick dispersal within the island. Finally, the tick density was found to be about a few hundreds of reproducing adults per squared kilometre, for a gene dispersal range of about a few hundred metres per tick generation. Results are discussed with regard to the evolution of new adaptive changes.

Differential expression of two glutathione S-transferases identified from the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis

Reciprocal signalling and gene expression play a cardinal role during pathogen-host molecular interactions and are prerequisite to the maintenance of balanced homeostasis. Gene expression repertoire changes during rickettsial infection and glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) were among the genes found up-regulated in Rickettsia-infected Dermacentor variabilis. GSTs are well known to play an important part in cellular stress responses in the host. We have cloned two full-length GSTs from D. variabilis (DvGST1 and DvGST2). Comparison of these two DvGST molecules with those of other species indicate that DvGST1 is related to the mammalian class theta and insect class delta GSTs, while DvGST2 does not seem to fall in the same family. Northern blotting analyses revealed differential expression patterns, where DvGST1 and DvGST2 transcripts are found in the tick gut, with DvGST2 transcripts also present in the ovaries. Both DvGST transcripts are up-regulated upon tick feeding. Challenge of fed adult ticks with Escherichia coli injection showed decreased transcript amounts compared with ticks injected with phosphate-buffered saline (sham) and naïve ticks.

Comparison of the reproductive biology between acaricide-resistant and acaricide-susceptible Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae)

The reproductive fitness of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini) strains resistant to organophosphate (OP), pyrethroid (P), or formamidine (F) acaricides was compared to an acaricide-susceptible (SUS) strain to determine whether the acquisition of resistance affected reproductive fitness in the resistant strains. The SUS strain females had a 3.0 days preoviposition period, a 12.1 days oviposition period, a 22.5 days egg incubation period, a mean of 3670 eggs per female, and a mean percentage egg hatch of 78.1%, which were all remarkably similar to these same parameters reported for this species throughout the world. The reproductive biology of the P-resistant strain (PYR) and the F-resistant strain (FOR) were, for the most part, similar to those of the SUS strain. In the few instances where statistical differences did occur there was little evidence that the variation had any biological basis that could be attributed to a reduction in fitness related to resistance to P or F acaricides. Although the comparison of reproductive parameters of the OP-resistant strain (OPR) and the SUS strain identified statistical differences between the mean egg incubation and oviposition periods, the magnitude of the differences was not sufficient to conclude that the OPR strain was biologically less fit than the SUS strain. However, the OPR strain produced 30% fewer eggs (2562 eggs per female) than the SUS strain (3670 eggs per female) indicating the acquisition of resistance placed the OPR at a selective disadvantage relative to the SUS strain. This coupled with a lower, though non-significant, egg hatch was used to predict there would be a reduction of at least 34.1% in larval numbers available to potentially re-infest subsequent cattle than were available from the SUS strain. These data may aid the development of management strategies that can be used to control OP-resistant ticks.

Relationship between glutathione S-transferase, catalase, oxygen consumption, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in eggs and larvae of Boophilus microplus (Acarina: Ixodidae)

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are enzymes that act in excretion of physiologic and xenobiotic substances, protecting cells against chemical toxicity and stress. In this work, we characterized the enzymatic activity of GST in eggs and larvae of cattle tick Boophilus microplus, on different days after oviposition and eclosion. The results showed that the GST activity varied depending on the time elapsed after oviposition and eclosion. Molecules involved in mechanism of protection from oxidative stress are correlated with the increase in GST activity. The oxygen consumption kinetics showed a positive correlation with the increase in GST activity during embryogenesis. A high content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances were observed in egg and larva extracts, indicating that ticks face high oxidative stress during embryogenesis and aging. In eggs and larvae, GST activity can be correlated to kinetic parameters of oxidative stress such as catalase and glutathione. In addition, GST activity showed strong positive correlation with lipid peroxidation, an indication that it plays a role in oxidant defences in eggs.

A cross-reactive tick cement antigen is a candidate broad-spectrum tick vaccine

Truncated constructs of 64P (64TRPs), a secreted cement protein from salivary glands of the tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, provided cross-protection against Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Ixodes ricinus, apparently by targeting antigens in the midgut and salivary glands of adults and nymphs, causing mortality. Tick feeding on 64TRP-immunised animals stimulated local inflammatory immune responses (involving basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, mast cells, macrophages and dendritic-like cells) that boosted the immune status of vaccinated animals. The vaccine trial results, and antigenic cross-reactivity of 64TRPs with R. sanguineus, I. ricinus, Amblyomma variegatum and Boophilus microplus, indicate the potential of 64TRPs as a broad-spectrum anti-tick vaccine.

BmiGI: a database of cDNAs expressed in Boophilus microplus, the tropical/southern cattle tick

We used an expressed sequence tag approach to initiate a study of the genome of the southern cattle tick, Boophilus microplus. A normalized cDNA library was synthesized from pooled RNA purified from tick larvae which had been subjected to different treatments, including acaricide exposure, heat shock, cold shock, host odor, and infection with Babesia bovis. For the acaricide exposure experiments, we used several strains of ticks, which varied in their levels of susceptibility to pyrethroid, organophosphate and amitraz. We also included RNA purified from samples of eggs, nymphs and adult ticks and dissected tick organs. Plasmid DNA was prepared from 11,520 cDNA clones and both 5' and 3' sequencing performed on each clone. The sequence data was used to search public protein databases and a B. microplus gene index was constructed, consisting of 8270 unique sequences whose associated putative functional assignments, when available, can be viewed at the TIGR website (http://www.tigr.org/tdb/tgi). A number of novel sequences were identified which possessed significant sequence similarity to genes, which might be involved in resistance to acaricides.

Cloning, expression and partial characterization of a Haemaphysalis longicornis and a Rhipicephalus appendiculatus glutathione S-transferase

The ticks Haemaphysalis longicornis and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus are important parasites worldwide. The current method for control of cattle ticks involves the use of chemicals. Nevertheless, parasite resistance is an ever increasing global problem. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) play a central role in detoxication of xenobiotic and endogenous compounds. Several authors have noted that an increase in GST activity is associated with resistance to insecticides and acaricides. In the present study, we report the cloning and expression of GST cDNAs from H. longicornis and R. appendiculatus. In addition, we determine the effect of three acaricides (ethion, deltamethrin and diazinon) on the enzymatic activity of rGSTs.

Effect of acaricides on the activity of a Boophilus microplus glutathione S-transferase

In the present study, we report the effect of several acaricides on the enzyme activity of a Boophilus microplus recombinant glutathione S-transferase (rGST). GST was expressed in Escherichia coli and was purified with glutathione (GSH) affinity column chromatography. The kinetic constants were determined by reacting GST with the substrates 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) and glutathione. We report the effect of several acaricides on the enzyme activity of rGST. Some acaricides (ethion, amitraz, chlorpyrifos, DDT, cypermethrin, diazinon, ivermectin, deltamethrin and flumethrin) inhibited rGST. Contrarily, coumaphos had an activating effect. Although the accurate mechanisms of the B. microplus resistance to acaricides remain elusive, this work helps in understanding how acaricides can interact with GST.

Dual action ectoparasite vaccine targeting 'exposed' and 'concealed' antigens

Blood-feeding ectoparasites, such as mosquitoes, sandflies and ticks, transmit many disease agents. Their control relies on large-scale, repeated use of chemical pesticides. An alternative, targeted and environmentally friendly approach is to develop anti-ectoparasite vaccines. We describe a vaccine to control ticks that targets an 'exposed' tick saliva antigen and cross-reacts with 'concealed' tick midgut antigens. Ticks feeding on immunised animals induced a cutaneous inflammatory response and increased antibody titer, while engorged ticks died following damage to their midgut. This dual action, acting at the feeding site and in the midgut, offers a self-sustaining strategy for ectoparasite control boosted by natural infestations.

Cloning and partial characterization of a Boophilus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae) glutathione S-transferase

A cDNA of glutathione S-transferase (GST) was isolated from a cDNA library of salivary glands of Boophilus microplus. The recombinant protein was purified by glutathione affinity chromatography and assayed upon the chromogenic substrate CDNB. The 864 bp cloned fragment was sequenced and showed an open reading frame coding for a protein of 220 amino acids. Expression of the GST gene was tested by RT-PCR in tick tissues and larvae mRNA. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence with GSTs from other species revealed that the enzyme is closely related to the mammalian class mu GSTs.

Expression and characterisation of a Psoroptes ovis glutathione S-transferase

The astigmatid mite Psoroptes ovis is the causative agent of sheep scab, a highly contagious parasitic disease of sheep. Infection causes severe allergic dermatitis, resulting in damage to the fleece and hide, loss of condition and occasional mortality. Interest in the P. ovis allergens led us to characterise a glutathione S-transferase (GST) which displays homology to GST allergens isolated from the house dust mite, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus and the cockroach, Blatella germanica. A cDNA encoding a mu-class GST from P. ovis was expressed in Escherichia coli and the recombinant protein purified for biochemical analysis. SDS-PAGE analysis indicated that the purified product was homogeneous and had an apparent molecular weight of 30 kDa. The recombinant GST (rGST) is active towards the substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), whereas 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene (DCNB) is a poor substrate. The recombinant protein was also tested for recognition by IgE and IgG antibodies in serum from P. ovis naïve and P. ovis infested sheep. Neither IgE nor IgG antibodies were detected to the rGST. Prausnitz--Küstner testing with rGST did not provoke a characteristic weal and flare response. Biopsies collected at the PK test sites were stained for eosinophils, neutrophils, mast cells and basophils. Neutrophil, mast cell and basophil counts were not significantly different to the controls. Eosinophil numbers were significantly higher than controls, but were not due to an IgE response.

Characterization and regulation of glutathione S-transferase gene from Schizosaccharomyces pombe

A glutathione S-transferase (GST) gene has been cloned from Schizosaccharomyces pombe for the first time. The nucleotide sequence determined was found to contain 2030 base pairs including an open reading frame of 229 amino acids that would encode a protein of a molecular mass of 27017 Da. The cloned GST gene was expressed and was found to function in S. pombe, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Escherichia coli. The plasmid pGT207 encoding the S. pombe GST gene appeared to be able to accelerate the growth of a wild type S. pombe culture. In a culture of S. pombe containing plasmid pGT207, the growth was inhibited less by mercuric chloride than in a culture with vector alone. The 1088 bp region upstream from the GST gene as well as the region encoding the N-terminal 14 amino acids was transferred into the promoterless beta-galactosidase gene of plasmid YEp357R to yield the fusion plasmid pYSH2000. beta-Galactosidase synthesis was induced by cadmium chloride, mercuric chloride, hydrogen peroxide, and menadione. It was also induced by high temperature. These results suggest that the cloned S. pombe GST gene is involved in the oxidative stress response.