The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)

Studying the social mind: An updated summary of findings from the Vietnam Head Injury Study

Lesion mapping studies allow us to evaluate the potential causal contribution of specific brain areas to human cognition and complement other cognitive neuroscience methods, as several authors have recently pointed out. Here, we present an updated summary of the findings from the Vietnam Head Injury Study (VHIS) focusing on the studies conducted over the last decade, that examined the social mind and its intricate neural and cognitive underpinnings. The VHIS is a prospective, long-term follow-up study of Vietnam veterans with penetrating traumatic brain injury (pTBI) and healthy controls (HC). The scope of the work is to present the studies from the latest phases (3 and 4) of the VHIS, 70 studies since 2011, when the Raymont et al. paper was published (Raymont et al., 2011). These studies have contributed to our understanding of human social cognition, including political and religious beliefs, theory of mind, but also executive functions, intelligence, and personality. This work finally discusses the usefulness of lesion mapping as an approach to understanding the functions of the human brain from basic science and clinical perspectives.

Explaining the Validity of the ASVAB for Job-Relevant Multitasking Performance: The Role of Placekeeping Ability

Scores on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) predict military job (and training) performance better than any single variable so far identified. However, it remains unclear what factors explain this predictive relationship. Here, we investigated the contributions of fluid intelligence (Gf) and two executive functions-placekeeping ability and attention control-to the relationship between the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT) score from the ASVAB and job-relevant multitasking performance. Psychometric network analyses revealed that Gf and placekeeping ability independently contributed to and largely explained the AFQT-multitasking performance relationship. The contribution of attention control to this relationship was negligible. However, attention control did relate positively and significantly to Gf and placekeeping ability, consistent with the hypothesis that it is a cognitive "primitive" underlying the individual differences in higher-level cognition. Finally, hierarchical regression analyses revealed stronger evidence for the incremental validity of Gf and placekeeping ability in the prediction of multitasking performance than for the incremental validity of attention control. The results shed light on factors that may underlie the predictive validity of global measures of cognitive ability and suggest how the ASVAB might be augmented to improve its predictive validity.

The impact of boarding schools on the development of cognitive and non-cognitive abilities in adolescents

BACKGROUND

Since China adopted a policy to eliminate rural learning centers, boarding has become an important feature of the current rural student community. However, there is a lack of consensus on the impact of boarding schools on students' cognitive and non-cognitive development. This study investigates the effect of boarding schools on the development of cognitive and non-cognitive abilities of junior high school students in rural northwest China.

METHODS

Using a sample of 5,660 seventh-grade students from 160 rural junior high schools across 19 counties, we identify a causal relationship between boarding and student abilities with the instrumental variables (IV) approach.

RESULTS

The results suggest that boarding positively influences memory and attention, while it has no significant effect on other cognitive abilities such as reasoning, transcription speed, and accuracy. Furthermore, we find no significant association between boarding and the development of non-cognitive skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the widespread prevalence of boarding schools in rural regions, our study highlights the growing importance of improving school management to promote the development of students' cognitive abilities and integrating the development of non-cognitive or social-emotional abilities into students' daily routines.

Person-Centered Study of Cognitive Ability Dimensions Using Latent Profile Analysis

A number of researchers have called for additional investigations into cognitive ability and intelligence in recent years. This paper utilized a person-centered approach, multiple cognitive ability dimensions, and latent profile analysis to investigate multivariate relationships among cognitive ability dimensions in a sample of 1681 Army recruits. Six cognitive ability dimensions were assessed via the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Performance measures were obtained from supervisor ratings of Effort, Discipline, and Peer Leadership. Using latent profile analysis, the results identified five distinct cognitive profiles or classes, which differed significantly across the three types of supervisor ratings.

The role of attention control in complex real-world tasks

Working memory capacity is an important psychological construct, and many real-world phenomena are strongly associated with individual differences in working memory functioning. Although working memory and attention are intertwined, several studies have recently shown that individual differences in the general ability to control attention is more strongly predictive of human behavior than working memory capacity. In this review, we argue that researchers would therefore generally be better suited to studying the role of attention control rather than memory-based abilities in explaining real-world behavior and performance in humans. The review begins with a discussion of relevant literature on the nature and measurement of both working memory capacity and attention control, including recent developments in the study of individual differences of attention control. We then selectively review existing literature on the role of both working memory and attention in various applied settings and explain, in each case, why a switch in emphasis to attention control is warranted. Topics covered include psychological testing, cognitive training, education, sports, police decision-making, human factors, and disorders within clinical psychology. The review concludes with general recommendations and best practices for researchers interested in conducting studies of individual differences in attention control.

Antecedents of Interest and the Investment of Fluid Intelligence in the Formation of Crystalized Intelligence

Most of the studies of the effects of fluid intelligence and non-cognitive characteristics on crystalized intelligence examined additive effects. The results of the few studies that examined interactive effects are inconsistent. Some find a positive (facilitating) interaction and some find a negative (compensatory) interaction. We improve on these previous studies by examining non-cognitive characteristics that were not studied before and by using a very large representative sample (n = 11,266). We find a positive/facilitating interaction. We discuss the implication of these results to theories about the joint effect of fluid intelligence and non-cognitive characteristics on crystalized intelligence.

New frontiers in cognitive ability testing: working memory

Purpose

Cognitive ability tests demonstrate strong relationships with job performance, but have several limitations; notably, subgroup differences based on race/ethnicity. As an alternative, the purpose of this paper is to develop a working memory assessment for personnel selection contexts.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors describe the development of Global Adaptive Memory Evaluation (G.A.M.E.) – a working memory assessment – along with three studies focused on refining and validating G.A.M.E., including examining test-taker reactions, reliability, subgroup differences, construct and criterion-related validity, and measurement equivalence across computer and mobile devices.

Findings

Evidence suggests that G.A.M.E. is a reliable and valid tool for employee selection. G.A.M.E. exhibited convergent validity with other cognitive assessments, predicted job performance, yielded smaller subgroup differences than traditional cognitive ability tests, was engaging for test-takers, and upheld equivalent measurement across computers and mobile devices.

Research limitations/implications

Additional research is needed on the use of working memory assessments as an alternative to traditional cognitive ability testing, including its advantages and disadvantages, relative to other constructs and methods.

Practical implications

The findings illustrate working memory’s potential as an alternative to traditional cognitive ability assessments and highlight the need for cognitive ability tests that rely on modern theories of intelligence and leverage burgeoning mobile technology.

Originality/value

This paper highlights an alternative to traditional cognitive ability tests, namely, working memory assessments, and demonstrates how to design reliable, valid, engaging and mobile-compatible versions.

Commenting on the "Great Debate": General Abilities, Specific Abilities, and the Tools of the Trade

We review papers in the special issue regarding the great debate on general and specific abilities. Papers in the special issue either provided an empirical examination of the debate using a uniform dataset or they provided a debate commentary. Themes that run through the papers and that are discussed further here are that: (1) the importance of general and specific ability predictors will largely depend on the outcome to be predicted, (2) the effectiveness of both general and specific predictors will largely depend on the quality and breadth of how the manifest indicators are measured, and (3) research on general and specific ability predictors is alive and well and more research is warranted. We conclude by providing a review of potentially fruitful areas of future research.

Scholastic Assessment or g?

There is little evidence showing the relationship between the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and g (general intelligence). This research established the relationship between SAT and g, as well as the appropriateness of the SAT as a measure of g, and examined the SAT as a premorbid measure of intelligence. In Study 1, we used the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Measures of g were extracted from the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery and correlated with SAT scores of 917 participants. The resulting correlation was .82 (.86 corrected for nonlinearity). Study 2 investigated the correlation between revised and recentered SAT scores and scores on the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices among 104 undergraduates. The resulting correlation was .483 (.72 corrected for restricted range). These studies indicate that the SAT is mainly a test of g. We provide equations for converting SAT scores to estimated IQs; such conversion could be useful for estimating premorbid IQ or conducting individual difference research with college students.

Use and interpretation of test scores from limited cognitive test batteries: how g + Gc can equal g

Single scores from limited and unbalanced test batteries of cognitive ability can be ambiguous to interpret theoretically. In this study, a limited verbally and knowledge-loaded cognitive test battery, from applicants to the Swedish police academies (N = 1,344), was examined to provide foundations for the use and interpretation of test scores. Three measurement models were compared: one single factor model and two bifactor models, which decomposed the variance of the battery into orthogonal components. The models were evaluated by fit indices and omega coefficients, and then applied to the prediction of academic performance. The overall prediction of all models was similar, although specific abilities also were found to provide substantial predictive validity over and above general intelligence (g). The findings provide support for the use of single scores in applied settings (selection), but suggest that it may be more appropriate to interpret such scores as composites of substantive components, and not just as measures of g.

Predicting battlefield vigilance: a multivariate approach to assessment of attentional resources

Technological innovation increasingly requires operators in various applied settings to maintain vigilance for extended periods. However, standard psychometric tests typically predict less than 10% of performance variance. The present study (N = 462) aimed to apply the resource theory of sustained attention to construct a multivariate test battery for predicting battlefield vigilance. The battery included cognitive ability tests, a high-workload short vigilance task and subjective measures of stress response. Four versions of a 60- min simulated military battlefield monitoring task were constructed to represent different operational requirements. The test battery predicted 24-44% of criterion variance, depending on task version, suggesting that it may identify vigilant operators in military and other applied contexts. A multiple-groups path analysis showed that relationships between ability and vigilance were moderated by working memory demands. Findings are consistent with a diffuse theoretical concept of 'resources' in which performance energisation depends on multiple, loosely coupled processes.

Hard evidence on soft skills

This paper summarizes recent evidence on what achievement tests measure; how achievement tests relate to other measures of "cognitive ability" like IQ and grades; the important skills that achievement tests miss or mismeasure, and how much these skills matter in life. Achievement tests miss, or perhaps more accurately, do not adequately capture, soft skills-personality traits, goals, motivations, and preferences that are valued in the labor market, in school, and in many other domains. The larger message of this paper is that soft skills predict success in life, that they causally produce that success, and that programs that enhance soft skills have an important place in an effective portfolio of public policies.

Validity Improvement in Two Reasoning Measures Following the Elimination of the Position Effect

We report on an investigation of the consequences of preventing the position effect from contributing to the correlation between two reasoning scales considered an indicator of convergent validity. Confirmatory factor models served to separate this effect from the ability-specific components of measurement in Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices and Horn’s Numeric Reasoning Scale. These models additionally enabled investigation of the convergent validity of these measures. In a sample of 230 participants the ability-specific components of the two reasoning measures showed a very high correlation (.88), whereas the correlation of the position-related components was not significant. Since the measures represented different types of reasoning, we conclude that the ability-specific components represent fluid intelligence and the position-related components reflect the specificities of the different types of reasoning.

Validade do conjunto de testes da habilidade de memória de curto-prazo (CTMC)

Este artigo analisa em nível exploratório a validade do CTMC, em termos de sua estrutura fatorial, validade convergente, validade discriminante e validade preditiva. Serão analisadas as respostas de 230 participantes que cursavam o ensino médio. Para investigar a estrutura fatorial foi usada a análise fatorial exploratória. Para investigar a validade convergente, divergente e preditiva foi usado o modelamento por equação estrutural. Os resultados apontam que os escores dos testes possuem adequada confiabilidade e validade. A estrutura fatorial dos itens dos testes indica a presença de três fatores especializados da memória de curto-prazo (Gsm). Os testes convergem para mensurar Gsm e divergem na mensuração de Gf. Gsm, medida pelo CTMC, prediz Gf.

Identification Problems in Personality Psychology

This paper discusses and illustrates identification problems in personality psychology. The measures used by psychologists to infer traits are based on behaviors, broadly defined. These behaviors are produced from multiple traits interacting with incentives in situations. In general, measures are determined by these multiple traits and do not identify any particular trait unless incentives and other traits are controlled for. Using two data sets, we show, as an example, that substantial portions of the variance in achievement test scores and grades, which are often used as measures of cognition, are explained by personality variables.

Effects of nonmaternal care in the first 3 years on children's academic skills and behavioral functioning in childhood and early adolescence: a sibling comparison study

Nonmaternal care of infant children is increasingly common, but there is disagreement as to whether it is harmful for children. Using data from 9,185 children (5 years and older) who participated in the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, the current study compared 2 groups: those for whom nonmaternal care was initiated in the first 3 years and those for whom it was not. Between-family comparisons showed that early nonmaternal care was associated with higher achievement and lower behavior problem scores in childhood and adolescence. However, within-family comparisons failed to detect differences between siblings who had different early nonmaternal care experiences. The study concludes that the timing of entry to nonmaternal care in the first 3 years has neither positive nor negative effects on children's outcomes.

Construct validation of the Swedish Scholastic Aptitude Test by means of the Swedish Enlistment Battery

The construct validity of the Swedish Scholastic Test (SweSAT), used for admissions to higher education, was studied through relating it to the Computerized Enlistment Battery (CAT-SEB) used at conscription to military service. Out of three male age cohorts tested at 18 years with the CAT-SEB in 1997, 1998, or 1999 six groups of men that had taken their first SweSAT in the Autumn (n= 3,163; 2,938; 2,820) the same year, or in the Spring (n= 3,238; 2,587; 2,447) the next year were used for the analyses. Four types of models were fitted to the tests: (1) a nested factor model with the latent variables general intelligence (g), crystallized intelligence (Gc) and general visualization; (2) a higher order model with g as an apex factor; (3) a multivariate regression model where the SeSAT subtests were regressed on the SEB factors; and (4) separate models of SweSAT and CAT-SEB with covariances between latent variables. The results show that the SweSAT is dominated by Gc factors and that the g factor has a smaller influence.