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Sufian MA, Ilies MA. Lipid-based nucleic acid therapeutics with in vivo efficacy. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 15:e1856. [PMID: 36180107 PMCID: PMC10023279 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic vectors for therapeutic nucleic acid delivery are currently competing significantly with their viral counter parts due to their reduced immunogenicity, large payload capacity, and ease of manufacture under GMP-compliant norms. The approval of Onpattro, a lipid-based siRNA therapeutic, and the proven clinical success of two lipid-based COVID-19 vaccines from Pfizer-BioNTech, and Moderna heralded the specific advantages of lipid-based systems among all other synthetic nucleic acid carriers. Lipid-based systems with diverse payloads-plasmid DNA (pDNA), antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA), small activating RNA (saRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA)-are now becoming a mature technology, with growing impact in the clinic. Research over four decades identified the key factors determining the therapeutic success of these multi-component systems. Here, we discuss the main nucleic acid-based technologies, presenting their mechanism of action, delivery barriers facing them, the structural properties of the payload as well as the component lipids that regulate physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, efficacy, and toxicity of the resultant nanoparticles. We further detail on the formulation parameters, evolution of the manufacturing techniques that generate reproducible and scalable outputs, and key manufacturing aspects that enable control over physicochemical properties of the resultant particles. Preclinical applications of some of these formulations that were successfully translated from in vitro studies to animal models are subsequently discussed. Finally, clinical success and failure of these systems starting from 1993 to present are highlighted, in a holistic literature review focused on lipid-based nucleic acid delivery systems. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Abu Sufian
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Moulder Center for Drug Discovery Research, School of Pharmacy, Temple University, 3307 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
| | - Marc A. Ilies
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Moulder Center for Drug Discovery Research, School of Pharmacy, Temple University, 3307 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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2
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Zhang L, Wang Y. Gene therapy in epilepsy. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 143:112075. [PMID: 34488082 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene therapy may constitute a promising alternative to conventional pharmacological tools and surgeries for epilepsy. For primary epilepsy, a single variant leading to a significant effect is relatively rare, while other forms are considered complex in inheritances with multiple susceptible mutations and impacts from the environment. Gene therapy in preclinical models of epilepsy has attempted to perform antiepileptogenic, anticonvulsant, or disease-modifying effects during epileptogenesis or after establishing the disease. Creating gene vectors tailored for different situations is the key to expanding gene therapy, and choosing the appropriate therapeutic target remains another fundamental problem. A variety of treatment strategies, from overexpressing inhibitory neuropeptides to modulating the expression of neurotransmitters or ion channels, have been tested in animal models. Additionally, emerging new approaches of optogenetics and chemogenetics, as well as genome-editing tools will further boost the prosperity of gene therapy. This review summarizes the experience obtained to date and discusses the challenges and opportunities in clinical translations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zhang
- Department of Neurology at Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Yuping Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Neuromodulation, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China; Center of Epilepsy, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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3
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Gene delivery to neurons in the auditory brainstem of barn owls using standard recombinant adeno-associated virus vectors. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2020; 1:100001. [PMID: 36249276 PMCID: PMC9559881 DOI: 10.1016/j.crneur.2020.100001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors are a commonly used tool for gene delivery. There is a large choice of different serotypes whose transduction efficiency varies for different animal species. In this study, three rAAV vectors were tested for transduction efficiency in the auditory brainstem of adult barn owls (Tyto alba) which are not standard laboratory animals. Injections with rAAV serotypes 2/1 and 2/5 resulted in reliable expression in various nuclei of the auditory brainstem of barn owls. Both vectors showed evidence of being spread by axonal transport. However, only rAAV2/5 also showed expression in regions far distant from the injection site, suggesting long-range axonal transport in connections along the auditory pathway. In contrast, injections with rAAV2/9 resulted in no expression. Our results demonstrate for the first time that commercially available rAAV vectors can be used for reliable gene expression in the barn owl auditory brainstem and pave the way toward optogenetic manipulation of neural activity in this important animal species in neuroethology and auditory physiology. Standard rAAV vectors effectively mediate gene expression in the barn-owl brain. rAAV2/1 was best suited for confined expression around the targeted injection site. Due to more axonal transport, rAAV2/5 resulted in wider spread of expressed genes. rAAV-mediated expression is expected to remain stable for an extended period of time. rAAV expression and stability are excellent prerequisites for optogenetic experiments.
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Zhao B, Chaturvedi P, Zimmerman DL, Belmont AS. Efficient and Reproducible Multigene Expression after Single-Step Transfection Using Improved BAC Transgenesis and Engineering Toolkit. ACS Synth Biol 2020; 9:1100-1116. [PMID: 32216371 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.9b00457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Achieving stable expression of a single transgene in mammalian cells remains challenging; even more challenging is obtaining simultaneous stable expression of multiple transgenes at reproducible, relative expression levels. Previously, we attained copy-number-dependent, chromosome-position-independent expression of reporter minigenes by embedding them within a BAC "scaffold" containing the mouse Msh3-Dhfr locus (DHFR BAC). Here, we extend this "BAC TG-EMBED" approach. First, we report a toolkit of endogenous promoters capable of driving transgene expression over a 0.01- to 5-fold expression range relative to the CMV promoter, allowing fine-tuning of relative expression levels of multiple reporter genes. Second, we demonstrate little variation in expression level and long-term expression stability of a reporter gene embedded in BACs containing either transcriptionally active or inactive genomic regions, making the choice of BAC scaffolds more flexible. Third, we present a novel BAC assembly scheme, "BAC-MAGIC", for inserting multiple transgenes into BAC scaffolds, which is much more time-efficient than traditional galK-based methods. As a proof-of-principle for our improved BAC TG-EMBED toolkit, we simultaneously fluorescently labeled three nuclear compartments at reproducible, relative intensity levels in 94% of stable clones after a single transfection using a DHFR BAC scaffold containing 4 transgenes assembled with BAC-MAGIC. Our extended BAC TG-EMBED toolkit and BAC-MAGIC method provide an efficient, versatile platform for stable simultaneous expression of multiple transgenes at reproducible, relative levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binhui Zhao
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Pankaj Chaturvedi
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - David L. Zimmerman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Andrew S. Belmont
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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5
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Segal DJ. Grand Challenges in Gene and Epigenetic Editing for Neurologic Disease. Front Genome Ed 2020; 1:1. [PMID: 34713209 PMCID: PMC8525068 DOI: 10.3389/fgeed.2019.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- David J Segal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Genome Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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Cela E, Sjöström PJ. Novel Optogenetic Approaches in Epilepsy Research. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:947. [PMID: 31551699 PMCID: PMC6743373 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy is a major neurological disorder characterized by repeated seizures afflicting 1% of the global population. The emergence of seizures is associated with several comorbidities and severely decreases the quality of life of patients. Unfortunately, around 30% of patients do not respond to first-line treatment using anti-seizure drugs (ASDs). Furthermore, it is still unclear how seizures arise in the healthy brain. Therefore, it is critical to have well developed models where a causal understanding of epilepsy can be investigated. While the development of seizures has been studied in several animal models, using chemical or electrical induction, deciphering the results of such studies has been difficult due to the uncertainty of the cell population being targeted as well as potential confounds such as brain damage from the procedure itself. Here we describe novel approaches using combinations of optical and genetic methods for studying epileptogenesis. These approaches can circumvent some shortcomings associated with the classical animal models and may thus increase the likelihood of developing new treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvis Cela
- Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Medicine, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Per Jesper Sjöström
- Brain Repair and Integrative Neuroscience Program, Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Department of Medicine, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Walker MC, Kullmann DM. Optogenetic and chemogenetic therapies for epilepsy. Neuropharmacology 2019; 168:107751. [PMID: 31494141 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.107751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Drug-resistant epilepsy remains a significant health-care burden. The most effective treatment is surgery, but this is suitable for very few patients because of the unacceptable consequences of removing brain tissue. In contrast, gene therapy can regulate neuronal excitability in the epileptic focus whilst preserving function. Optogenetics and chemogenetics have the advantage that they are titratable therapies. Optogenetics uses light to control the excitability of specific neuronal populations. Optogenetics can be used in a closed-loop paradigm in which the light source is activated only when seizures are detected. However, expression of foreign proteins raises concerns about immunogenicity. Chemogenetics relies on the modification of an endogenous receptor or the production of a modified chimeric receptor that responds to an exogenous ligand. The main chemogenetic approach applied to epilepsy is to use designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs), which have been mainly modified muscarinic receptors or kappa-opioid receptors. Genetically modified human muscarinic receptor DREADDs are activated not by acetylcholine but by specific drugs such as clozapine-n-oxide or olanzepine. The dose of the drugs can be titrated in order to suppress seizures without adverse effects. Lastly, there is a chemogenetic approach that is activated by an endogenous ligand, glutamate. This takes advantage of invertebrate glutamate receptors that are chloride permeable. These bind glutamate released during seizure activity, and the resultant chloride current inhibits neuronal activity. The exogenous ligand, ivermectin, can also be given to reduce neuronal activity either chronically or as a rescue medication. The translation of this technology is hampered by the expression of a foreign protein. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'New Epilepsy Therapies for the 21st Century - From Antiseizure Drugs to Prevention, Modification and Cure of Epilepsy'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C Walker
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - Dimitri M Kullmann
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Epilepsy, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
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8
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Pinyon JL, Klugmann M, Lovell NH, Housley GD. Dual-Plasmid Bionic Array-Directed Gene Electrotransfer in HEK293 Cells and Cochlear Mesenchymal Cells Probes Transgene Expression and Cell Fate. Hum Gene Ther 2019; 30:211-224. [DOI: 10.1089/hum.2018.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy L. Pinyon
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, and UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matthias Klugmann
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, and UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Nigel H. Lovell
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Gary D. Housley
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, and UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Blessing D, Vachey G, Pythoud C, Rey M, Padrun V, Wurm FM, Schneider BL, Déglon N. Scalable Production of AAV Vectors in Orbitally Shaken HEK293 Cells. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2018; 13:14-26. [PMID: 30591923 PMCID: PMC6305802 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2018.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are currently among the most commonly applied for in vivo gene therapy approaches. The evaluation of vectors during clinical development requires the production of considerable amounts of highly pure and potent vectors. Here, we set up a scalable process for AAV production, using orbitally shaken bioreactors and a fully characterized suspension-adapted cell line, HEKExpress. We conducted a proof-of-concept production of AAV2/8 and AAV2/9 vectors using HEKExpress cells. Furthermore, we compared the production of AAV2/9 vectors using this suspension cell line to classical protocols based on adherent HEK293 cells to demonstrate bioequivalence in vitro and in vivo. Following upstream processing, we purified vectors via gradient centrifugation and immunoaffinity chromatography. The in vitro characterization revealed differences due to the purification method, as well as the transfection protocol and the corresponding HEK293 cell line. The purification method and cell line used also affected in vivo transduction efficiency after bilateral injection of AAV2/9 vectors expressing a GFP reporter fused with a nuclear localization signal (AAV2/9-CBA-nlsGFP) into the striatum of adult mice. These results show that AAV vectors deriving from suspension HEKExpress cells are bioequivalent and may exhibit higher potency than vectors produced with adherent HEK293 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Blessing
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurosciences Research Center (CRN), Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gabriel Vachey
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurosciences Research Center (CRN), Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Catherine Pythoud
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurosciences Research Center (CRN), Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maria Rey
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurosciences Research Center (CRN), Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vivianne Padrun
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Florian M. Wurm
- ExcellGene SA, 1870 Monthey, Switzerland
- Faculty of Life Science, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EFPL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bernard L. Schneider
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Corresponding author: Bernard Schneider, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Nicole Déglon
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurosciences Research Center (CRN), Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Corresponding author: Nicole Déglon, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Laboratory of Neurotherapies and Neuromodulation (LNTM), Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Avenue de Beaumont, Pavillon 3, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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10
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Ge G, Chen C, Guderyon MJ, Liu J, He Z, Yu Y, Clark RA, Li S. Regulatable Lentiviral Hematopoietic Stem Cell Gene Therapy in a Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:995-1005. [PMID: 29562865 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2018.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) exhibits potent neuroprotective properties in preclinical models of Parkinson's disease (PD), but challenges in GDNF delivery have been reported from clinical trials. To address this barrier, we developed a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation-based macrophage-mediated GDNF therapy platform. Here, we introduced a regulatable lentiviral vector (LV-MSP-Tet-Off-hGDNF) to allow the expression of human GDNF (hGDNF) to be adjusted or stopped by oral administration of doxycycline (Dox). C57BL/6J mice were lethally irradiated with head protection and then transplanted with syngeneic bone marrow cells transduced with either the hGDNF-expressing vector or a corresponding GFP-expressing vector, LV-MSP-Tet-Off-GFP. Suppression of vector gene expression was achieved through administration of Dox in drinking water. To create a toxin-induced Parkinsonian model, mice were injected in two cycles with MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) to yield nigral cell/striatal dopamine loss and behavioral deficits. During the presence of Dox in the drinking water, plasma GDNF was at a basal level, whereas during the absence of Dox, plasma GDNF was significantly elevated, indicating reliable regulation of therapeutic gene expression. Midbrain GDNF levels were altered in parallel, although these did not return completely to basal levels during the periods of Dox withdrawal. Motor activities of the MPTP-Tet-off-hGDNF group were comparable to those of the Tet-off-GFP (subject to no MPTP treatment) group, but substantially better than those of the MPTP-Tet-off-GFP group. Interestingly, the improvement in motor activities was sustained during the Dox-withdrawn periods in MPTP-Tet-off-hGDNF animals. Neuroprotection by therapeutic GDNF expression was further evidenced by significant amelioration of nigral tyrosine hydroxylase loss after both the first and second MPTP treatment cycles. These data suggest that neurotrophic factor expression can be upregulated to achieve efficacy or downregulated in case of off-target effects or adverse events, a feature that may eventually increase the acceptance of this potentially neuroprotective/disease-modifying PD therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Ge
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,2 Stem Cells Research Center and Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University , Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Cang Chen
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Michael J Guderyon
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Jingwei Liu
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Zhixu He
- 2 Stem Cells Research Center and Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University , Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Yanni Yu
- 2 Stem Cells Research Center and Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University , Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Robert A Clark
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,3 Research & Development Service, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Senlin Li
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,3 Research & Development Service, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital , San Antonio, Texas.,4 Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
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11
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Crowther AJ, Lim SA, Asrican B, Albright BH, Wooten J, Yeh CY, Bao H, Cerri DH, Hu J, Ian Shih YY, Asokan A, Song J. An Adeno-Associated Virus-Based Toolkit for Preferential Targeting and Manipulating Quiescent Neural Stem Cells in the Adult Hippocampus. Stem Cell Reports 2018; 10:1146-1159. [PMID: 29478897 PMCID: PMC5918266 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2018.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Quiescent neural stem cells (qNSCs) with radial morphology are the only proven source of new neurons in the adult mammalian brain. Our understanding of the roles of newly generated neurons depends on the ability to target and manipulate adult qNSCs. Although various strategies have been developed to target and manipulate adult hippocampal qNSCs, they often suffer from prolonged breeding, low recombination efficiency, and non-specific labeling. Therefore, developing a readily manufactured viral vector that allows flexible packaging and robust expression of various transgenes in qNSCs is a pressing need. Here, we report a recombinant adeno-associated virus serotype 4 (rAAV4)-based toolkit that preferentially targets hippocampal qNSCs and allows for lineage tracing, functional analyses, and activity manipulation of adult qNSCs. Importantly, targeting qNSCs in a non-Cre-dependent fashion opens the possibility for studying qNSCs in less genetically tractable animal species and may have translational impact in gene therapy by preferentially targeting qNSCs. rAAV4 vectors preferentially target quiescent NSCs in the adult hippocampus rAAV4 vectors with distinct promoters reveal differential selectivity for radial NSCs rAAV4 allows for genetic manipulation and lineage tracing of quiescent NSCs rAAV4 allows for calcium imaging and activity manipulation of quiescent NSCs
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Crowther
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Szu-Aun Lim
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Brent Asrican
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Blake H Albright
- Department of Genetics and Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Genetics and Molecular Biology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Josh Wooten
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Genetics and Molecular Biology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Chia-Yu Yeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Hechen Bao
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Domenic H Cerri
- Department of Neurology and Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Jessica Hu
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Yen-Yu Ian Shih
- Department of Neurology and Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Aravind Asokan
- Department of Genetics and Gene Therapy Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Genetics and Molecular Biology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Juan Song
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Genetics and Molecular Biology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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12
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Rizzi N, Rebecchi M, Levandis G, Ciana P, Maggi A. Identification of novel loci for the generation of reporter mice. Nucleic Acids Res 2017; 45:e37. [PMID: 27899606 PMCID: PMC5389565 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkw1142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Deciphering the etiology of complex pathologies at molecular level requires longitudinal studies encompassing multiple biochemical pathways (apoptosis, proliferation, inflammation, oxidative stress). In vivo imaging of current reporter animals enabled the spatio-temporal analysis of specific molecular events, however, the lack of a multiplicity of loci for the generalized and regulated expression of the integrated transgenes hampers the creation of systems for the simultaneous analysis of more than a biochemical pathways at the time. We here developed and tested an in vivo-based methodology for the identification of multiple insertional loci suitable for the generation of reliable reporter mice. The validity of the methodology was tested with the generation of novel mice useful to report on inflammation and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Rizzi
- Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases and Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Monica Rebecchi
- Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases and Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanna Levandis
- Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases and Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Ciana
- Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases and Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology (DIPO), University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Adriana Maggi
- Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases and Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9 20133 Milan, Italy
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13
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Towne C, Thompson KR. Overview on Research and Clinical Applications of Optogenetics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 75:11.19.1-11.19.21. [DOI: 10.1002/cpph.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chris Towne
- Circuit Therapeutics, Inc Menlo Park California
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von Jonquieres G, Fröhlich D, Klugmann CB, Wen X, Harasta AE, Ramkumar R, Spencer ZHT, Housley GD, Klugmann M. Recombinant Human Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Promoter Drives Selective AAV-Mediated Transgene Expression in Oligodendrocytes. Front Mol Neurosci 2016; 9:13. [PMID: 26941604 PMCID: PMC4763065 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2016.00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukodystrophies are hereditary central white matter disorders caused by oligodendrocyte dysfunction. Recent clinical trials for some of these devastating neurological conditions have employed an ex vivo gene therapy approach that showed improved endpoints because cross-correction of affected myelin-forming cells occurred following secretion of therapeutic proteins by transduced autologous grafts. However, direct gene transfer to oligodendrocytes is required for the majority of leukodystrophies with underlying mutations in genes encoding non-secreted oligodendroglial proteins. Recombinant adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors are versatile tools for gene transfer to the central nervous system (CNS) and proof-of-concept studies in rodents have shown that the use of cellular promoters is sufficient to target AAV-mediated transgene expression to glia. The potential of this strategy has not been exploited. The major caveat of the AAV system is its limited packaging capacity of ~5 kb, providing the rationale for identifying small yet selective recombinant promoters. Here, we characterize the human myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG) promoter for reliable targeting of AAV-mediated transgene expression to oligodendrocytes in vivo. A homology screen revealed highly conserved genomic regions among mammalian species upstream of the transcription start site. Recombinant AAV expression cassettes carrying the cDNA encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) driven by truncated versions of the recombinant MAG promoter (2.2, 1.5 and 0.3 kb in size) were packaged as cy5 vectors and delivered into the dorsal striatum of mice. At 3 weeks post-injection, oligodendrocytes, neurons and astrocytes expressing the reporter were quantified by immunohistochemical staining. Our results revealed that both 2.2 and 1.5 kb MAG promoters targeted more than 95% of transgene expression to oligodendrocytes. Even the short 0.3 kb fragment conveyed high oligodendroglial specific transgene expression (>90%) in vivo. Moreover, cy5-MAG2.2-GFP delivery to the neonate CNS resulted in selective GFP expression in oligodendrocytes for at least 8 months. Broadly, the characterization of the extremely short yet oligodendrocyte-specific human MAG promoter may facilitate modeling neurological diseases caused by oligodendrocyte pathology and has translational relevance for leukodystrophy gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg von Jonquieres
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Dominik Fröhlich
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Claudia B Klugmann
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Xin Wen
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Anne E Harasta
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Roshini Ramkumar
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Ziggy H T Spencer
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Gary D Housley
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Matthias Klugmann
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia Sydney, NSW, Australia
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15
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16
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Adeno-associated-virus-mediated transduction of the mammary gland enables sustained production of recombinant proteins in milk. Sci Rep 2015; 5:15115. [PMID: 26463440 PMCID: PMC4604487 DOI: 10.1038/srep15115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Biopharming for the production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins in the mammary gland of transgenic animals is an attractive but laborious alternative compared to mammalian cell fermentation. The disadvantage of the lengthy process of genetically modifying an entire animal could be circumvented with somatic transduction of only the mammary epithelium with recombinant, replication-defective viruses. While other viral vectors offer very limited scope for this approach, vectors based on adeno-associated virus (AAV) appear to be ideal candidates because AAV is helper-dependent, does not induce a strong immune response and has no association with disease. Here, we sought to test the suitability of recombinant AAV (rAAV) for biopharming. Using reporter genes, we showed that injected rAAV efficiently transduced mouse mammary cells. When rAAV encoding human myelin basic protein (hMBP) was injected into the mammary glands of mice and rabbits, this resulted in the expression of readily detectable protein levels of up to 0.5 g/L in the milk. Furthermore we demonstrated that production of hMBP persisted over extended periods and that protein expression could be renewed in a subsequent lactation by re-injection of rAAV into a previously injected mouse gland.
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Gombash SE. Adeno-Associated Viral Vector Delivery to the Enteric Nervous System: A Review. POSTDOC JOURNAL : A JOURNAL OF POSTDOCTORAL RESEARCH AND POSTDOCTORAL AFFAIRS 2015; 3:1-12. [PMID: 27570787 PMCID: PMC5001153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Gene therapy to the gastrointestinal tract has remarkable potential for treating gastrointestinal disorders that currently lack effective treatments. Adeno-associated viral vectors (AAVs) have been extensively applied to the central nervous system, and have repeatedly demonstrated safety and efficacy in animal models. The enteric nervous system (ENS) represents a vast collection of neurons and glial cells that may also be subject to treatment by AAV, however little work has been conducted on AAV delivery to the ENS. Challenges for gastrointestinal gene therapy include identifying gene targets, optimizing gene delivery, and target cell selection. Researchers are now beginning to tackle the later of the two challenges with AAV, and the same AAV technology can be used to identify novel gene targets in the future. Continued efforts to understand AAV delivery and improve vector design are essential for therapeutic development. This review summarizes the current knowledge about AAV delivery to the ENS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E Gombash
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.
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18
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Nassi JJ, Cepko CL, Born RT, Beier KT. Neuroanatomy goes viral! Front Neuroanat 2015; 9:80. [PMID: 26190977 PMCID: PMC4486834 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2015.00080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The nervous system is complex not simply because of the enormous number of neurons it contains but by virtue of the specificity with which they are connected. Unraveling this specificity is the task of neuroanatomy. In this endeavor, neuroanatomists have traditionally exploited an impressive array of tools ranging from the Golgi method to electron microscopy. An ideal method for studying anatomy would label neurons that are interconnected, and, in addition, allow expression of foreign genes in these neurons. Fortuitously, nature has already partially developed such a method in the form of neurotropic viruses, which have evolved to deliver their genetic material between synaptically connected neurons while largely eluding glia and the immune system. While these characteristics make some of these viruses a threat to human health, simple modifications allow them to be used in controlled experimental settings, thus enabling neuroanatomists to trace multi-synaptic connections within and across brain regions. Wild-type neurotropic viruses, such as rabies and alpha-herpes virus, have already contributed greatly to our understanding of brain connectivity, and modern molecular techniques have enabled the construction of recombinant forms of these and other viruses. These newly engineered reagents are particularly useful, as they can target genetically defined populations of neurons, spread only one synapse to either inputs or outputs, and carry instructions by which the targeted neurons can be made to express exogenous proteins, such as calcium sensors or light-sensitive ion channels, that can be used to study neuronal function. In this review, we address these uniquely powerful features of the viruses already in the neuroanatomist's toolbox, as well as the aspects of their biology that currently limit their utility. Based on the latter, we consider strategies for improving viral tracing methods by reducing toxicity, improving control of transsynaptic spread, and extending the range of species that can be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Nassi
- Systems Neurobiology Laboratories, Salk Institute for Biological Studies La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Constance L Cepko
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA ; Department of Ophthalmology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA
| | - Richard T Born
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA ; Center for Brain Science, Harvard University Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kevin T Beier
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Department of Biology, Stanford University Stanford, CA, USA
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Abstract
Recent advances in tissue clearing techniques have provided a promising method of visualizing axonal trajectories with unprecedented accuracy and speed. While previous studies have utilized transgenic labeling in mice, the use of virus or chemical neuronal tracers will provide additional spatiotemporal control as well as the ability to use animal models in which transgenic axonal labeling is not available. The histological assessment of spinal cord tissue in three dimensions has previously been very time consuming and prone to errors of interpretation. Advances in tissue clearing have significantly improved visualization of fluorescently labelled axons. While recent proof-of-concept studies have been performed with transgenic mice in which axons were prelabeled with GFP, investigating axonal regeneration requires stringent axonal tracing methods as well as the use of animal models in which transgenic axonal labeling is not available. Using rodent models of spinal cord injury, we labeled axon tracts of interest using both adeno-associated virus and chemical tracers and performed tetrahydrofuran-based tissue clearing to image multiple axon types in spinal cords using light sheet and confocal microscopy. Using this approach, we investigated the relationships between axons and scar-forming cells at the injury site as well as connections between sensory axons and motor pools in the spinal cord. In addition, we used these methods to trace axons in nonhuman primates. This reproducible and adaptable virus-based approach can be combined with transgenic mice or with chemical-based tract-tracing methods, providing scientists with flexibility in obtaining axonal trajectory information from transparent tissue.
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20
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Pinyon JL, Tadros SF, Froud KE, Y Wong AC, Tompson IT, Crawford EN, Ko M, Morris R, Klugmann M, Housley GD. Close-field electroporation gene delivery using the cochlear implant electrode array enhances the bionic ear. Sci Transl Med 2015; 6:233ra54. [PMID: 24760189 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3008177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The cochlear implant is the most successful bionic prosthesis and has transformed the lives of people with profound hearing loss. However, the performance of the "bionic ear" is still largely constrained by the neural interface itself. Current spread inherent to broad monopolar stimulation of the spiral ganglion neuron somata obviates the intrinsic tonotopic mapping of the cochlear nerve. We show in the guinea pig that neurotrophin gene therapy integrated into the cochlear implant improves its performance by stimulating spiral ganglion neurite regeneration. We used the cochlear implant electrode array for novel "close-field" electroporation to transduce mesenchymal cells lining the cochlear perilymphatic canals with a naked complementary DNA gene construct driving expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and a green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter. The focusing of electric fields by particular cochlear implant electrode configurations led to surprisingly efficient gene delivery to adjacent mesenchymal cells. The resulting BDNF expression stimulated regeneration of spiral ganglion neurites, which had atrophied 2 weeks after ototoxic treatment, in a bilateral sensorineural deafness model. In this model, delivery of a control GFP-only vector failed to restore neuron structure, with atrophied neurons indistinguishable from unimplanted cochleae. With BDNF therapy, the regenerated spiral ganglion neurites extended close to the cochlear implant electrodes, with localized ectopic branching. This neural remodeling enabled bipolar stimulation via the cochlear implant array, with low stimulus thresholds and expanded dynamic range of the cochlear nerve, determined via electrically evoked auditory brainstem responses. This development may broadly improve neural interfaces and extend molecular medicine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy L Pinyon
- Translational Neuroscience Facility and Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, UNSW Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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21
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Optimization of eGFP expression using a modified baculovirus expression system. J Biotechnol 2014; 173:41-6. [PMID: 24445173 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2014.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Revised: 12/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The baculovirus gene expression system is an efficient and safe protein expression system, since baculoviruses cannot replicate in mammalian cells. In order to improve the transduction efficiency and increase the reporter gene expression levels delivered by baculoviruses, we tested in the baculovirus expression cassette the Woodchuck hepatitis virus response element (WPRE), and AAV-derived inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) and the truncated vesicular stomatitis virus G protein (VSV-GED). The results showed that WPRE and VSV-GED have synergistic effects and could enhance the expression efficiency of enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP), and that ITRs effectively extended the duration of eGFP expression. We also demonstrated that the efficiency of eGFP expression varied under the control of the CMV, CBA, EF1-α or WSSV ie1 promoters in different cell lines.
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22
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Fagoe ND, Eggers R, Verhaagen J, Mason MRJ. A compact dual promoter adeno-associated viral vector for efficient delivery of two genes to dorsal root ganglion neurons. Gene Ther 2013; 21:242-52. [PMID: 24285216 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2013.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Revised: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors based on serotype 5 are an efficient means to target dorsal root ganglia (DRG) to study gene function in the primary sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system. In this study, we have developed a compact AAV dual promoter vector composed of the cytomegalovirus (CMV) and chicken beta-actin (CAG) promoters in a back-to-back configuration with a shared enhancer, and show efficient expression of two proteins simultaneously in DRG neurons. We demonstrate how this is useful for experiments on axonal regeneration, by co-expressing a gene of interest and an axonal marker. Using a farnesylated form of eGFP, which is actively transported along axons, we show superior long-distance labelling of axons of DRG neurons compared with normal eGFP. Additionally, we have efficiently transduced lumbar DRG neurons by injecting the AAV dual promoter vector into the dorsal intrathecal space, which is a less invasive delivery method. In summary, we have developed an AAV dual promoter vector designed for simultaneous expression of a gene of interest and a fluorescent protein to label long-distance axonal projections, which allows specific quantification of axons from transduced neurons after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- N D Fagoe
- Laboratory for Neuroregeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - R Eggers
- Laboratory for Neuroregeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J Verhaagen
- 1] Laboratory for Neuroregeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands [2] Center for Neurogenomics and Cognition Research, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Vrije Universtiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M R J Mason
- Laboratory for Neuroregeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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23
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Tomioka T, Shimazaki T, Yamauchi T, Oki T, Ohgoh M, Okano H. LIM homeobox 8 (Lhx8) is a key regulator of the cholinergic neuronal function via a tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TrkA)-mediated positive feedback loop. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:1000-10. [PMID: 24265310 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.494385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons play an important role in cognitive functions such as learning and memory, and they are affected in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome. Despite their functional importance, the molecular mechanisms of functional maturation and maintenance of these cholinergic neurons after the differentiation stage have not been fully elucidated. This study demonstrates that the LIM homeobox 8 (Lhx8) transcription factor regulates cholinergic function in rat septal cholinergic neurons in primary cultures from E18.5 embryos and in the adult brain. Lhx8 expression modulated tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TrkA) expression in septal cholinergic neurons in vitro and in vivo, resulting in regulated acetylcholine release as an index of cholinergic function. In addition, Lhx8 expression and function were regulated by nerve growth factor (NGF), and the effect of NGF was potentiated by Lhx8-induced TrkA expression. Together, our findings suggest that positive feedback regulation between Lhx8, TrkA, and NGF is an important regulatory mechanism for cholinergic functions of the septum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeyasu Tomioka
- From the Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582 and
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24
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Analysis of transduction efficiency, tropism and axonal transport of AAV serotypes 1, 2, 5, 6, 8 and 9 in the mouse brain. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76310. [PMID: 24086725 PMCID: PMC3785459 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 372] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Recombinant Adeno-associated virus vectors (rAAV) are widely used for gene delivery and multiple naturally occurring serotypes have been harnessed to target cells in different tissues and organs including the brain. Here, we provide a detailed and quantitative analysis of the transduction profiles of rAAV vectors based on six of the most commonly used serotypes (AAV1, AAV2, AAV5, AAV6, AAV8, AAV9) that allows systematic comparison and selection of the optimal vector for a specific application. In our studies we observed marked differences among serotypes in the efficiency to transduce three different brain regions namely the striatum, hippocampus and neocortex of the mouse. Despite the fact that the analyzed serotypes have the general ability to transduce all major cell types in the brain (neurons, microglia, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), the expression level of a reporter gene driven from a ubiquitous promoter varies significantly for specific cell type / serotype combinations. For example, rAAV8 is particularly efficient to drive transgene expression in astrocytes while rAAV9 appears well suited for the transduction of cortical neurons. Interestingly, we demonstrate selective retrograde transport of rAAV5 along axons projecting from the ventral part of the entorhinal cortex to the dentate gyrus. Furthermore, we show that self-complementing rAAV can be used to significantly decrease the time required for the onset of transgene expression in the mouse brain.
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25
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Ganella DE, Callander GE, Ma S, Bye CR, Gundlach AL, Bathgate RAD. Modulation of feeding by chronic rAAV expression of a relaxin-3 peptide agonist in rat hypothalamus. Gene Ther 2012; 20:703-16. [PMID: 23135160 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2012.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Relaxin-3 is a neuropeptide that is abundantly expressed by discrete brainstem neuron populations that broadly innervate forebrain areas rich in the relaxin-3 G-protein-coupled-receptor, RXFP3. Acute and subchronic central administration of synthetic relaxin-3 or an RXFP3-selective agonist peptide, R3/I5, increase feeding and body weight in rats. Intrahypothalamic injection of relaxin-3 also increases feeding. In this study, we developed a recombinant adeno-associated virus 1/2 (rAAV1/2) vector that drives expression and constitutive secretion of bioactive R3/I5 and assessed the effect of intrahypothalamic injections on daily food intake and body weight gain in adult male rats over 8 weeks. In vitro testing revealed that the vector rAAV1/2-fibronectin (FIB)-R3/I5 directs the constitutive secretion of bioactive R3/I5 peptide. Bilateral injection of rAAV1/2-FIB-R3/I5 vector into the paraventricular nucleus produced an increase in daily food intake and body weight gain (P<0.01, ~23%, respectively), relative to control treatment. In a separate cohort of rats, quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of hypothalamic mRNA revealed strong expression of R3/I5 transgene at 3 months post-rAAV1/2-FIB-R3/I5 infusion. Levels of mRNA transcripts for the relaxin-3 receptor RXFP3, the hypothalamic 'feeding' peptides neuropeptide Y, AgRP and POMC, and the reproductive hormone, GnRH, were all similar to control, whereas vasopressin and oxytocin (OT) mRNA levels were reduced by ~25% (P=0.051) and ~50% (P<0.005), respectively, in rAAV1/2-FIB-R3/I5-treated rats (at 12 weeks, n=9/8 rats per group). These data demonstrate for the first time that R3/I5 is effective in modulating feeding in the rat by chronic hypothalamic RXFP3 activation and suggest a potential underlying mechanism involving altered OT signalling. Importantly, there was no desensitization of the feeding response over the treatment period and no apparent deleterious health effects, indicating that targeting the relaxin-3-RXFP3 system may be an effective long-term therapy for eating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Ganella
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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26
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Delzor A, Dufour N, Petit F, Guillermier M, Houitte D, Auregan G, Brouillet E, Hantraye P, Déglon N. Restricted transgene expression in the brain with cell-type specific neuronal promoters. Hum Gene Ther Methods 2012. [DOI: 10.1089/hum.2012.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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27
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Delzor A, Dufour N, Petit F, Guillermier M, Houitte D, Auregan G, Brouillet E, Hantraye P, Déglon N. Restricted transgene expression in the brain with cell-type specific neuronal promoters. Hum Gene Ther Methods 2012; 23:242-54. [PMID: 22934828 DOI: 10.1089/hgtb.2012.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue-targeted expression is of major interest for studying the contribution of cellular subpopulations to neurodegenerative diseases. However, in vivo methods to investigate this issue are limited. Here, we report an analysis of the cell specificity of expression of fluorescent reporter genes driven by six neuronal promoters, with the ubiquitous phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK) promoter used as a reference. Quantitative analysis of AcGFPnuc expression in the striatum and hippocampus of rodents showed that all lentiviral vectors (LV) exhibited a neuronal tropism; however, there was substantial diversity of transcriptional activity and cell-type specificity of expression. The promoters with the highest activity were those of the 67 kDa glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD67), homeobox Dlx5/6, glutamate receptor 1 (GluR1), and preprotachykinin 1 (Tac1) genes. Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and dopaminergic receptor 1 (Drd1a) promoters showed weak activity, but the integration of an amplification system into the LV overcame this limitation. In the striatum, the expression profiles of Tac1 and Drd1a were not limited to the striatonigral pathway, whereas in the hippocampus, Drd1a and Dlx5/6 showed the expected restricted pattern of expression. Regulation of the Dlx5/6 promoter was observed in a disease condition, whereas Tac1 activity was unaffected. These vectors provide safe tools that are more selective than others available, for the administration of therapeutic molecules in the central nervous system (CNS). Nevertheless, additional characterization of regulatory elements in neuronal promoters is still required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Delzor
- Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), Institute of Biomedical Imaging (I2BM) and Molecular Imaging Research Center (MIRCen), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
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28
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Urban A, Rossier J. Genetic targeting of specific neuronal cell types in the cerebral cortex. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2012; 196:163-92. [PMID: 22341326 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-59426-6.00009-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the structure and function of cortical circuits requires the identification of and control over specific cell types in the cortex. To address these obstacles, recent optogenetic approaches have been developed. The capacity to activate, silence, or monitor specific cell types by combining genetics, virology, and optics will decipher the role of specific groups of neurons within circuits with a spatiotemporal resolution that overcomes standard approaches. In this review, the various strategies for selective genetic targeting of a defined neuronal population are discussed as well as the pros and cons of the use of transgenic animals and recombinant viral vectors for the expression of transgenes in a specific set of neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Urban
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Diversité Cellulaire, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7637, Ecole Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles, Paris, France.
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29
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Caveolin-1 suppresses human immunodeficiency virus-1 replication by inhibiting acetylation of NF-κB. Virology 2012; 432:110-9. [PMID: 22748181 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Revised: 03/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Caveolin-1 is an integral membrane protein primarily responsible for the formation of membrane structures known as caveolae. Caveolae are specialized lipid rafts involved in protein trafficking, cholesterol homeostasis, and a number of signaling functions. It has been demonstrated that caveolin-1 suppresses HIV-1 protein expression. We found that co-transfecting cells with HIV-1 and caveolin-1 constructs, results in a marked decrease in the level of HIV-1 transcription relative to cells transfected with HIV-1 DNA alone. Correspondingly, reduction of endogenous caveolin-1 expression by siRNA-mediated silencing resulted in an enhancement of HIV-1 replication. Further, we observed a loss of caveolin-mediated suppression of HIV-1 transcription in promoter studies with reporters containing mutations in the NF-κB binding site. Our analysis of the posttranslational modification status of the p65 subunit of NF-κB demonstrates hypoacetylation of p65 in the presence of caveolin-1. Since hypoacetylated p65 has been shown to inhibit transcription, we conclude that caveolin-1 inhibits HIV-1 transcription through a NF-κB-dependent mechanism.
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30
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Abstract
We have previously shown that AAV2 undergoes anterograde axonal transport in rat and non-human primate brain. We screened other AAV serotypes for axonal transport and found that AAV6 is transported almost exclusively in a retrograde direction and, like AAV2, it is also neuron-specific in rat brain. Our findings show that axonal transport of AAV is serotype-dependent and this has implications for gene therapy of neurological diseases such as Huntington’s disease.
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31
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Authentically phosphorylated α-synuclein at Ser129 accelerates neurodegeneration in a rat model of familial Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci 2012; 31:16884-94. [PMID: 22090514 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3967-11.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and the appearance of fibrillar aggregates of insoluble α-synuclein (α-syn) called Lewy bodies (LBs). Approximately 90% of α-syn deposited in LBs is phosphorylated at serine 129 (Ser129). In contrast, only 4% of total α-syn is phosphorylated in normal brain, suggesting that accumulation of Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn is involved in the pathogenesis of PD. However, the role of Ser129 phosphorylation in α-syn neurotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, we coexpressed familial PD-linked A53T α-syn and G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 6 (GRK6) in the rat SN pars compacta using recombinant adeno-associated virus 2. Coexpression of these proteins yielded abundant Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn and significantly exacerbated degeneration of dopaminergic neurons when compared with coexpression of A53T α-syn and GFP. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn was preferentially distributed to swollen neurites. However, biochemical analysis showed that the increased expression of Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn did not promote accumulation of detergent-insoluble α-syn. Coexpression of catalytically inactive K215R mutant GRK6 failed to accelerate A53T α-syn-induced degeneration. Furthermore, introducing a phosphorylation-incompetent mutation, S129A, into A53T α-syn did not alter the pace of degeneration, even when GRK6 was coexpressed. Our study demonstrates that authentically Ser129-phosphorylated α-syn accelerates A53T α-syn neurotoxicity without the formation of detergent-insoluble α-syn, and suggests that the degenerative process could be constrained by inhibiting the kinase that phosphorylates α-syn at Ser129.
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Yin L, Greenberg K, Hunter JJ, Dalkara D, Kolstad KD, Masella BD, Wolfe R, Visel M, Stone D, Libby RT, DiLoreto D, Schaffer D, Flannery J, Williams DR, Merigan WH. Intravitreal injection of AAV2 transduces macaque inner retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52:2775-83. [PMID: 21310920 PMCID: PMC3088562 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.10-6250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2010] [Revised: 10/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/21/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Adeno-associated virus serotype 2 (AAV2) has been shown to be effective in transducing inner retinal neurons after intravitreal injection in several species. However, results in nonprimates may not be predictive of transduction in the human inner retina, because of differences in eye size and the specialized morphology of the high-acuity human fovea. This was a study of inner retina transduction in the macaque, a primate with ocular characteristics most similar to that of humans. METHODS In vivo imaging and histology were used to examine GFP expression in the macaque inner retina after intravitreal injection of AAV vectors containing five distinct promoters. RESULTS AAV2 produced pronounced GFP expression in inner retinal cells of the fovea, no expression in the central retina beyond the fovea, and variable expression in the peripheral retina. AAV2 vector incorporating the neuronal promoter human connexin 36 (hCx36) transduced ganglion cells within a dense annulus around the fovea center, whereas AAV2 containing the ubiquitous promoter hybrid cytomegalovirus (CMV) enhancer/chicken-β-actin (CBA) transduced both Müller and ganglion cells in a dense circular disc centered on the fovea. With three shorter promoters--human synapsin (hSYN) and the shortened CBA and hCx36 promoters (smCBA and hCx36sh)--AAV2 produced visible transduction, as seen in fundus images, only when the retina was altered by ganglion cell loss or enzymatic vitreolysis. CONCLUSIONS The results in the macaque suggest that intravitreal injection of AAV2 would produce high levels of gene expression at the human fovea, important in retinal gene therapy, but not in the central retina beyond the fovea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Yin
- From the Flaum Eye Institute
- the Center for Visual Science
| | - Kenneth Greenberg
- the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute and
- the Departments of Molecular and Cell Biology
- Vision Science, and
| | | | | | - Kathleen D. Kolstad
- the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute and
- the Departments of Molecular and Cell Biology
- Vision Science, and
| | | | | | - Meike Visel
- the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute and
- the Departments of Molecular and Cell Biology
- Vision Science, and
| | - Daniel Stone
- the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute and
- Chemical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California
| | | | | | - David Schaffer
- the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute and
- Chemical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California
| | - John Flannery
- the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute and
- the Departments of Molecular and Cell Biology
- Vision Science, and
| | - David R. Williams
- the Center for Visual Science
- Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York; and
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Disrupting function of FK506-binding protein 1b/12.6 induces the Ca²+-dysregulation aging phenotype in hippocampal neurons. J Neurosci 2011; 31:1693-703. [PMID: 21289178 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4805-10.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
With aging, multiple Ca(2+)-associated electrophysiological processes exhibit increased magnitude in hippocampal pyramidal neurons, including the Ca(2+)-dependent slow afterhyperpolarization (sAHP), L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel (L-VGCC) activity, Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release (CICR) from ryanodine receptors (RyRs), and Ca(2+) transients. This pattern of Ca(2+) dysregulation correlates with reduced neuronal excitability/plasticity and impaired learning/memory and has been proposed to contribute to unhealthy brain aging and Alzheimer's disease. However, little is known about the underlying molecular mechanisms. In cardiomyocytes, FK506-binding protein 1b/12.6 (FKBP1b) binds and stabilizes RyR2 in the closed state, inhibiting RyR-mediated Ca(2+) release. Moreover, we recently found that hippocampal Fkbp1b expression is downregulated, whereas Ryr2 and Frap1/Mtor (mammalian target of rapamycin) expression is upregulated with aging in rats. Here, we tested the hypothesis that disrupting FKBP1b function also destabilizes Ca(2+) homeostasis in hippocampal neurons and is sufficient to induce the aging phenotype of Ca(2+) dysregulation in young animals. Selective knockdown of Fkbp1b with interfering RNA in vitro (96 h) enhanced voltage-gated Ca(2+) current in cultured neurons, whereas in vivo Fkbp1b knockdown by microinjection of viral vector (3-4 weeks) dramatically increased the sAHP in hippocampal slice neurons from young-adult rats. Rapamycin, which displaces FKBP1b from RyRs in myocytes, similarly enhanced VGCC current and the sAHP and also increased CICR. Moreover, FKBP1b knockdown in vivo was associated with upregulation of RyR2 and mTOR protein expression. Thus, disruption of FKBP1b recapitulated much of the Ca(2+)-dysregulation aging phenotype in young rat hippocampus, supporting a novel hypothesis that declining FKBP function plays a major role in unhealthy brain aging.
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Efficient and stable transduction of dopaminergic neurons in rat substantia nigra by rAAV 2/1, 2/2, 2/5, 2/6.2, 2/7, 2/8 and 2/9. Gene Ther 2011; 18:517-27. [PMID: 21326331 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2010.179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunction of the nigrostriatal system is the major cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). This brain region is therefore an important target for gene delivery aiming at disease modeling and gene therapy. Recombinant adeno-associated viral (rAAV) vectors have been developed as efficient vehicles for gene transfer into the central nervous system. Recently, several serotypes have been described, with varying tropism for brain transduction. In light of the further development of a viral vector-mediated rat model for PD, we performed a comprehensive comparison of the transduction and tropism for dopaminergic neurons (DNs) in the adult Wistar rat substantia nigra (SN) of seven rAAV vector serotypes (rAAV 2/1, 2/2, 2/5, 2/6.2, 2/7, 2/8 and 2/9). All vectors were normalized by titer and volume, and stereotactically injected into the SN. Gene expression was assessed non-invasively and quantitatively in vivo by bioluminescence imaging at 2 and 5 weeks after injection, and was found to be stable over time. Immunohistochemistry at 6 weeks following injection revealed the most widespread enhanced green fluorescence protein expression and the highest number of positive nigral cells using rAAV 2/7, 2/9 and 2/1. The area transduced by rAAV 2/8 was smaller, but nevertheless almost equal numbers of nigral cells were targeted. Detailed confocal analysis revealed that serotype 2/7, 2/9, 2/1 and 2/8 transduced at least 70% of the DNs. In conclusion, these results show that various rAAV serotypes efficiently transduce nigral DNs, but significant differences in transgene expression pattern and level were observed.
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Wimmer VC, Broser PJ, Kuner T, Bruno RM. Experience-induced plasticity of thalamocortical axons in both juveniles and adults. J Comp Neurol 2011; 518:4629-48. [PMID: 20886626 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We examined the effect of sensory deprivation on thalamocortical (TC) projections to the rat primary somatosensory cortex at different postnatal ages ranging from P0 to P96. Rats had their whiskers clipped off with one or two vibrissae spared. TC axons innervating barrel cortex were specifically labeled by injecting virus expressing fluorescent proteins into the corresponding primary (VPM) and/or secondary (POm) thalamic nuclei. The density of VPM axons in deprived columns was ≈34% lower relative to spared columns with a concomitant decrease in bouton density, suggesting a deprivation-induced retraction of VPM axons. Axonal changes were reversible upon regrowth of the clipped whiskers and independent of age at deprivation, indicating the absence of a critical period for anatomical plasticity. The POm projection was not obviously altered by sensory deprivation. We suggest that retraction and regrowth of TC axons substantially contribute to long-term deprivation-dependent functional plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena C Wimmer
- Department of Cell Physiology, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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Morgenstern PF, Marongiu R, Musatov SA, Kaplitt MG. Adeno-associated viral gene delivery in neurodegenerative disease. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 793:443-55. [PMID: 21913118 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-328-8_29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The advent of viral gene therapy technology has contributed greatly to the study of a variety of medical conditions, and there is increasing promise for clinical translation of gene therapy into human treatments. Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors provide one of the more promising approaches to gene delivery, and have been used extensively over the last 20 years. Derived from nonpathogenic parvoviruses, these vectors allow for stable and robust expression of desired transgenes in vitro and in vivo. AAV vectors efficiently and stably transduce neurons, with some strains targeting neurons exclusively in the brain. Thus, AAV vectors are particularly useful for neurodegenerative diseases, which have led to numerous preclinical studies and several human trials of gene therapy in patients with Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and pediatric neurogenetic disorders. Here, we describe an efficient and reliable method for the production and purification of AAV serotype 2 vectors for both in vitro and in vivo applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter F Morgenstern
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurosurgery, Department of Neurological Surgery, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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Wimmer VC, Bruno RM, de Kock CPJ, Kuner T, Sakmann B. Dimensions of a projection column and architecture of VPM and POm axons in rat vibrissal cortex. Cereb Cortex 2010; 20:2265-76. [PMID: 20453248 PMCID: PMC2936807 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhq068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
This is the first article in a series of 3 studies that investigate the anatomical determinants of thalamocortical (TC) input to excitatory neurons in a cortical column of rat primary somatosensory cortex (S1). S1 receives 2 major types of TC inputs, lemiscal and paralemniscal. Lemiscal axons arise from the ventral posteromedial nucleus (VPM) of the thalamus, whereas paralemniscal fibers originate in the posteromedial nucleus (POm). While these 2 TC projections are largely complementary in L4, overlap in other cortical layers is still a matter of debate. VPM and POm axons were specifically labeled in the same rat by virus-mediated expression of different fluorescent proteins. We show that columnar and septal projection patterns are maintained throughout most of the cortical depth with a lower degree of separation in infragranular layers, where TC axons form bands along rows. Finally, we present anatomical dimensions of "TC projection domains" for a standard column in S1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena C Wimmer
- Department of Cell Physiology, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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Philips MA, Kingo K, Karelson M, Rätsep R, Aunin E, Reimann E, Reemann P, Porosaar O, Vikeså J, Nielsen FC, Vasar E, Silm H, Kõks S. Promoter polymorphism -119C/G in MYG1 (C12orf10) gene is related to vitiligo susceptibility and Arg4Gln affects mitochondrial entrance of Myg1. BMC MEDICAL GENETICS 2010; 11:56. [PMID: 20377893 PMCID: PMC2856544 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2350-11-56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 04/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background MYG1 (Melanocyte proliferating gene 1, also C12orf10 in human) is a ubiquitous nucleo-mitochondrial protein, involved in early developmental processes and in adult stress/illness conditions. We recently showed that MYG1 mRNA expression is elevated in the skin of vitiligo patients. Our aim was to examine nine known polymorphisms in the MYG1 gene, to investigate their functionality, and to study their association with vitiligo susceptibility. Methods Nine single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the MYG1 locus were investigated by SNPlex assay and/or sequencing in vitiligo patients (n = 124) and controls (n = 325). MYG1 expression in skin biopsies was detected by quantitative-real time PCR (Q-RT-PCR) and polymorphisms were further analysed using luciferase and YFP reporters in the cell culture. Results Control subjects with -119G promoter allele (rs1465073) exhibited significantly higher MYG1 mRNA levels than controls with -119C allele (P = 0.01). Higher activity of -119G promoter was confirmed by luciferase assay. Single marker association analysis showed that the -119G allele was more frequent in vitiligo patients (47.1%) compared to controls (39.3%, P < 0.05, OR 1.37, 95%CI 1.02-1.85). Analysis based on the stage of progression of the vitiligo revealed that the increased frequency of -119G allele occurred prevalently in the group of patients with active vitiligo (n = 86) compared to the control group (48.2% versus 39.3%, P < 0.05; OR 1.44, 95%CI 1.02-2.03). Additionally, we showed that glutamine in the fourth position (in Arg4Gln polymorphism) completely eliminated mitochondrial entrance of YFP-tagged Myg1 protein in cell culture. The analysis of available EST, cDNA and genomic DNA sequences revealed that Myg1 4Gln allele is remarkably present in human populations but is never detected in homozygous state according to the HapMap database. Conclusions Our study demonstrated that both MYG1 promoter polymorphism -119C/G and Arg4Gln polymorphism in the mitochondrial signal of Myg1 have a functional impact on the regulation of the MYG1 gene and promoter polymorphism (-119C/G) is related with suspectibility for actively progressing vitiligo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari-Anne Philips
- Department of Physiology, University of Tartu, 19 Ravila Street, Tartu 50411, Estonia.
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Anticonvulsant effects and behavioural outcomes of rAAV serotype 1 vector-mediated neuropeptide Y overexpression in rat hippocampus. Gene Ther 2010; 17:643-52. [DOI: 10.1038/gt.2010.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Sumiyoshi T, Holt NG, Hollis RP, Ge S, Cannon PM, Crooks GM, Kohn DB. Stable transgene expression in primitive human CD34+ hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, using the Sleeping Beauty transposon system. Hum Gene Ther 2010; 20:1607-26. [PMID: 19689196 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2009.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon-mediated integration has been shown to achieve long-term transgene expression in a wide range of host cells. In this study, we improved the SB transposon-mediated gene transfer system for transduction of human CD34(+) stem/progenitor cells by two approaches: (1) to increase the transposition efficacy, a hyperactive mutant of SB, HSB, was used; (2) to improve the expression of the SB transposase and the transgene cassette carried by the transposon, different viral and cellular promoters were evaluated. SB components were delivered in trans into the target cells by Nucleoporation. The SB transposon-mediated integration efficacy was assessed by integrated transgene (enhanced green fluorescent protein [eGFP]) expression both in vitro and in vivo. In purified human cord blood CD34(+) cells, HSB achieved long-term transgene expression in nearly 7-fold more cells than the original SB transposase. Significantly brighter levels of eGFP expression (5-fold) were achieved with the human elongation factor 1alpha (EF1-alpha) promoter in Jurkat human T cells, compared with that achieved with the modified myeloproliferative sarcoma virus long terminal repeat enhancer-promoter (MNDU3); in contrast, the MNDU3 promoter expressed eGFP at the highest level in K-562 myeloid cells. In human CD34(+) cord blood cells studied under conditions directing myeloid differentiation, the highest transgene integration and expression were achieved using the EF1-alpha promoter to express the SB transposase combined with the MNDU3 promoter to express the eGFP reporter. Stable transgene expression was achieved at levels up to 27% for more than 4 weeks of culture after improved gene transfer to CD34(+) cells (average, 17%; n = 4). In vivo studies evaluating engraftment and differentiation of the SB-modified human CD34(+) cells demonstrated that SB-modified human CD34(+) cells engrafted in NOD/SCID/gamma chain(null) (NSG) mice and differentiated into multilineage cell types with eGFP expression. More importantly, secondary transplantation studies demonstrated that the integrated transgene was stably expressed in more primitive CD34(+) hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) with long-term repopulating capability. This study demonstrates that an improved HSB gene transfer system can stably integrate genes into primitive human HSCs while maintaining the pluripotency of the stem cells, which shows promise for further advancement of non-virus-based gene therapy using hematopoietic stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teiko Sumiyoshi
- Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation, Saban Research Institute of Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
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Koerber JT, Klimczak R, Jang JH, Dalkara D, Flannery JG, Schaffer DV. Molecular evolution of adeno-associated virus for enhanced glial gene delivery. Mol Ther 2009; 17:2088-95. [PMID: 19672246 PMCID: PMC2788045 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2009.184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 07/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The natural tropism of most viral vectors, including adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors, leads to predominant transduction of neurons and epithelia within the central nervous system (CNS) and retina. Despite the clinical relevance of glia for homeostasis in neural tissue, and as causal contributors in genetic disorders such as Alzheimer's and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, efforts to develop more efficient gene delivery vectors for glia have met with limited success. Recently, viral vector engineering involving high-throughput random diversification and selection has enabled the rapid creation of AAV vectors with valuable new gene delivery properties. We have engineered novel AAV variants capable of efficient glia transduction by employing directed evolution with a panel of four distinct AAV libraries, including a new semi-random peptide replacement strategy. These variants transduced both human and rat astrocytes in vitro up to 15-fold higher than their parent serotypes, and injection into the rat striatum yielded astrocyte transduction levels up to 16% of the total transduced cell population, despite the human astrocyte selection platform. Furthermore, one variant exhibited a substantial shift in tropism toward Müller glia within the retina, further highlighting the general utility of these variants for efficient glia transduction in multiple species within the CNS and retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- James T Koerber
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, The University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-1462, USA
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Centlivre M, Zhou X, Pouw SM, Weijer K, Kleibeuker W, Das AT, Blom B, Seppen J, Berkhout B, Legrand N. Autoregulatory lentiviral vectors allow multiple cycles of doxycycline-inducible gene expression in human hematopoietic cells in vivo. Gene Ther 2009; 17:14-25. [PMID: 19727135 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2009.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The efficient control of gene expression in vivo from lentiviral vectors remains technically challenging. To analyze inducible gene expression in a human setting, we generated 'human immune system' (HIS) mice by transplanting newborn BALB/c Rag2(-/-)IL-2Rgamma(c)(-/-) immunodeficient mice with human hematopoietic stem cells transduced with a doxycycline-inducible lentiviral vector. We compared several methods of doxycycline delivery to mice, and could accurately measure doxycycline in vivo using a new sensitive detection assay. Two different lentiviral vector designs with constitutive (TRECMV-V14) or autoregulatory (TREAuto-V14) expression of an optimized reverse tetracycline transactivator were used to transduce human hematopoietic stem cells. After transplantation into immunodeficient mice, we analyzed the expression of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene in the human hematopoiesis-derived cells that develop and accumulate in the generated HIS mice. We show efficient inducible GFP expression in adult HIS mice containing TREAuto-V14-transduced human cells, whereas GFP expression is poor with the TRECMV-V14 vector. Multiple cycles of doxycycline exposure in the TREAuto-V14 group result in repeated cycles of GFP expression with no loss of intensity. These findings are of major interest for gene therapy and basic research settings that require inducible gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Centlivre
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam (AMC-UvA), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Manfredsson FP, Burger C, Rising AC, Zuobi-Hasona K, Sullivan LF, Lewin AS, Huang J, Piercefield E, Muzyczka N, Mandel RJ. Tight Long-term dynamic doxycycline responsive nigrostriatal GDNF using a single rAAV vector. Mol Ther 2009; 17:1857-67. [PMID: 19707186 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2009.196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) gene transfer is being developed as a treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD). Due to the potential for side effects, external transgene regulation should enhance this strategy's safety profile. Here, we demonstrate dynamic control during long-term expression of GDNF using a recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV)-based bicistronic tetracycline (tet)-off construct. Nigrostriatal GDNF overexpression induces body weight alterations in rodents, enabling longitudinal in vivo tracking of GDNF expression after nigral vector delivery. Regulated GDNF expression was highly sensitive to dietary doxycycline (DOX), displaying undetectable striatal GDNF levels at serum DOX levels below those required for antimicrobial activity. However, in the absence of DOX, striatal GDNF levels exceeded levels required for efficacy in PD models. We also demonstrate the absence of a series of known GDNF-associated side effects when using direct intrastriatal vector delivery. Therefore, this single rAAV vector system meets most of the requirements for an experimental reagent for treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredric P Manfredsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Powell Gene Therapy Center, McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
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Pilpel N, Landeck N, Klugmann M, Seeburg PH, Schwarz MK. Rapid, reproducible transduction of select forebrain regions by targeted recombinant virus injection into the neonatal mouse brain. J Neurosci Methods 2009; 182:55-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2009] [Revised: 05/13/2009] [Accepted: 05/27/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Cancer targeted gene therapy of BikDD inhibits orthotopic lung cancer growth and improves long-term survival. Oncogene 2009; 28:3286-95. [PMID: 19597463 PMCID: PMC2763377 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2009.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer death due to the high incidence of metastasis; therefore novel and effective treatments are urgently needed. A current strategy is cancer specific targeted gene therapy. While many identified cancer specific promoters are highly specific, they tend to have low activity compared to the ubiquitous CMV promoter, limiting their application. We developed a targeted gene therapy expression system for lung cancer that is highly specific with strong activity. Our expression vector uses the survivin promoter, highly expressed in many cancers but not normal adult tissues. We enhanced the survivin promoter activity comparable to the CMV promoter in lung cancer cell lines using an established platform technology, while the survivin promoter remained weak in normal cells. In mouse models, the transgene was specifically expressed in the lung tumor tissue, compared with the CMV promoter that was expressed in both normal and tumor tissues. Additionally, the therapeutic gene BikDD, a mutant form of pro-apoptotic Bik, induced cell killing in vitro, and inhibited cell growth and prolonged mouse survival in vivo. Importantly, there was virtually no toxicity when BikDD was expressed with our expression system. Thus, the current report provides a therapeutic efficacy and safe strategy worthy of development in clinical trials treating lung cancer.
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Boulaire J, Balani P, Wang S. Transcriptional targeting to brain cells: Engineering cell type-specific promoter containing cassettes for enhanced transgene expression. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2009; 61:589-602. [PMID: 19394380 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2009.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2008] [Accepted: 02/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Transcriptional targeting using a mammalian cellular promoter to restrict transgene expression to target cells is often desirable for gene therapy. This strategy is, however, hindered by relatively weak activity of some cellular promoters, which may lead to low levels of gene expression, thus declining therapeutic efficacy. Here we outline the advances accomplished in the area of transcriptional targeting to brain cells, with a particular focus on engineering gene cassettes to augment cell type-specific expression. Among the effective approaches that improve gene expression while retaining promoter specificity are promoter engineering to change authentic sequences of a cellular promoter and the combined use of a native cellular promoter and other cis-acting elements. Success in achieving high level and sustained transgene expression only in the cell types of interest would be of importance in allowing gene therapy to have its impact on patient treatment.
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Kalev-Zylinska ML, Symes W, Young D, During MJ. Knockdown and overexpression of NR1 modulates NMDA receptor function. Mol Cell Neurosci 2009; 41:383-96. [PMID: 19394426 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2008] [Revised: 03/24/2009] [Accepted: 04/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) is critically involved in learning and memory, neuronal survival, as well as neuroexcitotoxicity and seizures. We hypothesize that even mild reductions in the numbers of hippocampal NMDARs could impair learning and memory, whereas increasing receptor activity would facilitate learning but reduce seizure threshold. We developed novel gene transfer strategies assisted by an adeno-associated viral vector 1/2 to bi-directionally modulate expression levels of the NR1 protein in rat hippocampus. Functional consequences of the altered NR1 expression were examined in the acute seizure model, and on normal processes of fear memory and neurogenesis. We found that knocking down NR1 protected against seizures at the expense of impaired learning, as predicted. Paradoxically, NR1 overexpression not only increased fear memory and neurogenesis, but also delayed onset of more severe seizures. In conclusion, the observed consequences of NR1 knockdown and overexpression underscore NMDAR requirement for neuronal plasticity, and are in agreement with its dichotomous functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie L Kalev-Zylinska
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Richardson JS, Yao MK, Tran KN, Croyle MA, Strong JE, Feldmann H, Kobinger GP. Enhanced protection against Ebola virus mediated by an improved adenovirus-based vaccine. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5308. [PMID: 19390586 PMCID: PMC2669164 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Ebola virus is transmitted by direct contact with bodily fluids of infected individuals, eliciting death rates as high as 90% among infected humans. Currently, replication defective adenovirus-based Ebola vaccine is being studied in a phase I clinical trial. Another Ebola vaccine, based on an attenuated vesicular stomatitis virus has shown efficacy in post-exposure treatment of nonhuman primates to Ebola infection. In this report, we modified the common recombinant adenovirus serotype 5-based Ebola vaccine expressing the wild-type ZEBOV glycoprotein sequence from a CMV promoter (Ad-CMVZGP). The immune response elicited by this improved expression cassette vector (Ad-CAGoptZGP) and its ability to afford protection against lethal ZEBOV challenge in mice was compared to the standard Ad-CMVZGP vector. Methodology/Principal Findings Ad-CMVZGP was previously shown to protect mice, guinea pigs and nonhuman primates from an otherwise lethal challenge of Zaire ebolavirus. The antigenic expression cassette of this vector was improved through codon optimization, inclusion of a consensus Kozak sequence and reconfiguration of a CAG promoter (Ad-CAGoptZGP). Expression of GP from Ad-CAGoptZGP was substantially higher than from Ad-CMVZGP. Ad-CAGoptZGP significantly improved T and B cell responses at doses 10 to 100-fold lower than that needed with Ad-CMVZGP. Additionally, Ad-CAGoptZGP afforded full protections in mice against lethal challenge at a dose 100 times lower than the dose required for Ad-CMVZGP. Finally, Ad-CAGoptZGP induced full protection to mice when given 30 minutes post-challenge. Conclusions/Significance We describe an improved adenovirus-based Ebola vaccine capable of affording post-exposure protection against lethal challenge in mice. The molecular modifications of the new improved vaccine also translated in the induction of significantly enhanced immune responses and complete protection at a dose 100 times lower than with the previous generation adenovirus-based Ebola vaccine. Understanding and improving the molecular components of adenovirus-based vaccines can produce potent, optimized product, useful for vaccination and post-exposure therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S. Richardson
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Michel K. Yao
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Kaylie N. Tran
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Maria A. Croyle
- Division of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, United States of America
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - James E. Strong
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Heinz Feldmann
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Gary P. Kobinger
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Epigenetic regulation of cytomegalovirus major immediate-early promoter activity in transgenic mice. Gene 2009; 428:20-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2008.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2008] [Revised: 09/18/2008] [Accepted: 09/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Targeting Homer genes using adeno-associated viral vector: lessons learned from behavioural and neurochemical studies. Behav Pharmacol 2008; 19:485-500. [PMID: 18690104 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e32830c369f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Over a decade of in-vitro data support a critical role for members of the Homer family of postsynaptic scaffolding proteins in regulating the functional architecture of glutamate synapses. Earlier studies of Homer knockout mice indicated a necessary role for Homer gene products in normal mesocorticolimbic glutamate transmission and behaviours associated therewith. The advent of adeno-associated viral vectors carrying cDNA for, or short hairpin RNA against, specific Homer isoforms enabled the site-directed targeting of Homers to neurons in the brain. This approach has allowed our groups to address developmental issues associated with conventional knockout mice, to confirm active roles for distinct Homer isoforms in regulating glutamate transmission in vivo, as well as in mediating a variety of behavioural processes. This review summarizes the existing data derived from our studies using adeno-associated viral vector-mediated neuronal targeting of Homer in rodents, implicating this family of proteins in drug and alcohol addiction, learning/memory and emotional processing.
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