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Zhao RY. Yeast for virus research. MICROBIAL CELL (GRAZ, AUSTRIA) 2017; 4:311-330. [PMID: 29082230 PMCID: PMC5657823 DOI: 10.15698/mic2017.10.592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are two popular model organisms for virus research. They are natural hosts for viruses as they carry their own indigenous viruses. Both yeasts have been used for studies of plant, animal and human viruses. Many positive sense (+) RNA viruses and some DNA viruses replicate with various levels in yeasts, thus allowing study of those viral activities during viral life cycle. Yeasts are single cell eukaryotic organisms. Hence, many of the fundamental cellular functions such as cell cycle regulation or programed cell death are highly conserved from yeasts to higher eukaryotes. Therefore, they are particularly suited to study the impact of those viral activities on related cellular activities during virus-host interactions. Yeasts present many unique advantages in virus research over high eukaryotes. Yeast cells are easy to maintain in the laboratory with relative short doubling time. They are non-biohazardous, genetically amendable with small genomes that permit genome-wide analysis of virologic and cellular functions. In this review, similarities and differences of these two yeasts are described. Studies of virologic activities such as viral translation, viral replication and genome-wide study of virus-cell interactions in yeasts are highlighted. Impacts of viral proteins on basic cellular functions such as cell cycle regulation and programed cell death are discussed. Potential applications of using yeasts as hosts to carry out functional analysis of small viral genome and to develop high throughput drug screening platform for the discovery of antiviral drugs are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Yuqi Zhao
- Department of Pathology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Global Health, and Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Kobbi L, Dias J, Comisso M, Mirande M. Association of human mitochondrial lysyl-tRNA synthetase with HIV-1 GagPol does not require other viral proteins. BIOCHIMIE OPEN 2016; 2:52-61. [PMID: 29632838 PMCID: PMC5889485 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopen.2016.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
In human, the cytoplasmic (cLysRS) and mitochondrial (mLysRS) species of lysyl-tRNA synthetase are encoded by a single gene. Following HIV-1 infection, mLysRS is selectively taken up into viral particles along with the three tRNALys isoacceptors. The GagPol polyprotein precursor is involved in this process. With the aim to reconstitute in vitro the HIV-1 tRNA3Lys packaging complex, we first searched for the putative involvement of another viral protein in the selective viral hijacking of mLysRS only. After screening all the viral proteins, we observed that Vpr and Rev have the potential to interact with mLysRS, but that this association does not take place at the level of the assembly of mLysRS into the packaging complex. We also show that tRNA3Lys can form a ternary complex with the two purified proteins mLysRS and the Pol domain of GagPol, which mimicks its packaging complex. HIV-1 Rev and Vpr proteins have the capacity to bind human mitochondrial LysRS. In the complex between HIV-1 Pol and mitochondrial LysRS, Rev and Vpr are excluded. Association of Pol with mLysRS recapitulates the tRNA3Lys packaging complex of HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Kobbi
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, 1 avenue de la Terrasse, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - José Dias
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, 1 avenue de la Terrasse, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Martine Comisso
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, 1 avenue de la Terrasse, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Marc Mirande
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, 1 avenue de la Terrasse, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Toossi Z, Liu S, Wu M, Mayanja-Kizza H, Hirsch CS. Short communication: circulating plasma HIV-1 viral protein R in dual HIV-1/tuberculosis infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2014; 30:644-7. [PMID: 24798102 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2013.0269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Circulating free HIV-1 viral protein R (Vpr) is found in up to one third of subjects with HIV-1 infection. Free Vpr presumably shares some of the immunopathogenic effects of cell-associated Vpr. Here we assessed Vpr in plasma and pleural fluid from HIV/tuberculosis (TB) dually infected subjects with pleural TB and from plasma of patients with pulmonary HIV/TB. Vpr was assessed by western blot analysis. In plasma from HIV/TB subjects with pulmonary TB free Vpr could be detected in 47%. Only one subject, among 26 tested, with HIV monoinfection showed plasma Vpr activity. The majority (87.5%) of patients with pleural HIV/TB demonstrated free Vpr reactivity in their plasma. However, no Vpr activity was found in autologous pleural fluid samples from pleural HIV/TB patients. Standard (s) Vpr reactivity was reduced markedly by the addition of sVpr to pleural fluid from HIV-uninfected subjects. A high incidence of plasma Vpr reactivity in HIV/TB patients implies heightened processing and release of this HIV-1 accessory protein during HIV/TB coinfection. The contribution of free Vpr to HIV-1 immunopathogenesis during HIV/TB needs to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Toossi
- Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Shigou Liu
- Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Mianda Wu
- Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Harriet Mayanja-Kizza
- Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
- Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
- Joint Clinical Research Center, Kampala, Uganda
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Evidence for Vpr-dependent HIV-1 replication in human CD4+ CEM.NKR T-cells. Retrovirology 2012; 9:93. [PMID: 23134572 PMCID: PMC3528630 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-9-93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vpr is exclusively expressed in primate lentiviruses and contributes to viral replication and disease progression in vivo. HIV-1 Vpr has two major activities in vitro: arrest of cell cycle in the G2 phase (G2 arrest), and enhancement of viral replication in macrophages. Previously, we reported a potent HIV-1 restriction in the human CD4+ CEM.NKR (NKR) T cells, where wild-type (WT) HIV-1 replication was inhibited by almost 1,000-fold. From the parental NKR cells, we isolated eight clones by limiting dilution. These clones showed three levels of resistance to the WT HIV-1 infection: non-permissive (NP), semi-permissive (SP), and permissive (P). Here, we compared the replication of WT, Vif-defective, Vpr-defective, and Vpu-defective viruses in these cells. RESULTS Although both WT and Vpu-defective viruses could replicate in the permissive and semi-permissive clones, the replication of Vif-defective and Vpr-defective viruses was completely restricted. The expression of APOBEC3G (A3G) cytidine deaminase in NKR cells explains why Vif, but not Vpr, was required for HIV-1 replication. When the Vpr-defective virus life cycle was compared with the WT virus life cycle in the semi-permissive cells, it was found that the Vpr-defective virus could enter the cell and produce virions containing properly processed Gag and Env proteins, but these virions showed much less efficiency for reverse transcription during the next-round of infection. In addition, although viral replication was restricted in the non-permissive cells, treatment with arsenic trioxide (As2O3) could completely restore WT, but not Vpr-defective virus replication. Moreover, disruption of Vpr binding to its cofactor DCAF1 and/or induction of G2 arrest activity did not disrupt the Vpr activity in enhancing HIV-1 replication in NKR cells. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that HIV-1 replication in NKR cells is Vpr-dependent. Vpr promotes HIV-1 replication from the 2nd cycle likely by overcoming a block at early stage of viral replication; and this activity does not require DCAF1 and G2 arrest. Further studies of this mechanism should provide new understanding of Vpr function in the HIV-1 life cycle.
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Yang H, Nkeze J, Zhao RY. Effects of HIV-1 protease on cellular functions and their potential applications in antiretroviral therapy. Cell Biosci 2012; 2:32. [PMID: 22971934 PMCID: PMC3490751 DOI: 10.1186/2045-3701-2-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) protease inhibitors (PIs) are the most potent class of drugs in antiretroviral therapies. However, viral drug resistance to PIs could emerge rapidly thus reducing the effectiveness of those drugs. Of note, all current FDA-approved PIs are competitive inhibitors, i.e., inhibitors that compete with substrates for the active enzymatic site. This common inhibitory approach increases the likelihood of developing drug resistant HIV-1 strains that are resistant to many or all current PIs. Hence, new PIs that move away from the current target of the active enzymatic site are needed. Specifically, allosteric inhibitors, inhibitors that prohibit PR enzymatic activities through non-competitive binding to PR, should be sought. Another common feature of current PIs is they were all developed based on the structure-based design. Drugs derived from a structure-based strategy may generate target specific and potent inhibitors. However, this type of drug design can only target one site at a time and drugs discovered by this method are often associated with strong side effects such as cellular toxicity, limiting its number of target choices, efficacy, and applicability. In contrast, a cell-based system may provide a useful alternative strategy that can overcome many of the inherited shortcomings associated with structure-based drug designs. For example, allosteric PIs can be sought using a cell-based system without considering the site or mechanism of inhibition. In addition, a cell-based system can eliminate those PIs that have strong cytotoxic effect. Most importantly, a simple, economical, and easy-to-maintained eukaryotic cellular system such as yeast will allow us to search for potential PIs in a large-scaled high throughput screening (HTS) system, thus increasing the chances of success. Based on our many years of experience in using fission yeast as a model system to study HIV-1 Vpr, we propose the use of fission yeast as a possible surrogate system to study the effects of HIV-1 protease on cellular functions and to explore its utility as a HTS system to search for new PIs to battle HIV-1 resistant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailiu Yang
- Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Mukerjee R, Chang JR, Del Valle L, Bagashev A, Gayed MM, Lyde RB, Hawkins BJ, Brailoiu E, Cohen E, Power C, Azizi SA, Gelman BB, Sawaya BE. Deregulation of microRNAs by HIV-1 Vpr protein leads to the development of neurocognitive disorders. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:34976-85. [PMID: 21816823 PMCID: PMC3186354 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.241547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2011] [Revised: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have shown that HIV-infected patients develop neurocognitive disorders characterized by neuronal dysfunction. The lack of productive infection of neurons by HIV suggests that viral and cellular proteins, with neurotoxic activities, released from HIV-1-infected target cells can cause this neuronal deregulation. The viral protein R (Vpr), a protein encoded by HIV-1, has been shown to alter the expression of various important cytokines and inflammatory proteins in infected and uninfected cells; however the mechanisms involved remain unclear. Using a human neuronal cell line, we found that Vpr can be taken up by neurons causing: (i) deregulation of calcium homeostasis, (ii) endoplasmic reticulum-calcium release, (iii) activation of the oxidative stress pathway, (iv) mitochondrial dysfunction and v- synaptic retraction. In search for the cellular factors involved, we performed microRNAs and gene array assays using human neurons (primary cultures or cell line, SH-SY5Y) that we treated with recombinant Vpr proteins. Interestingly, Vpr deregulates the levels of several microRNAs (e.g. miR-34a) and their target genes (e.g. CREB), which could lead to neuronal dysfunctions. Therefore, we conclude that Vpr plays a major role in neuronal dysfunction through deregulating microRNAs and their target genes, a phenomenon that could lead to the development of neurocognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Luis Del Valle
- the Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology/Oncology, and Department of Pathology, Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112
| | | | | | | | - Brian J. Hawkins
- Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Mitochondria and Metabolism Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Eugen Brailoiu
- Pharmacology, Molecular Studies of Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140
| | - Eric Cohen
- the Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal (IRCM) and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Chris Power
- the Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Medical Microbiology & Immunology, and Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2S2, Canada, and
| | | | - Benjamin B. Gelman
- the Departments of Pathology and Neuroscience & Cell Biology, Texas NeuroAIDS Research Center, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-0609
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Menéndez-Arias L. Mutation rates and intrinsic fidelity of retroviral reverse transcriptases. Viruses 2009; 1:1137-65. [PMID: 21994586 PMCID: PMC3185545 DOI: 10.3390/v1031137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2009] [Revised: 12/03/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Retroviruses are RNA viruses that replicate through a DNA intermediate, in a process catalyzed by the viral reverse transcriptase (RT). Although cellular polymerases and host factors contribute to retroviral mutagenesis, the RT errors play a major role in retroviral mutation. RT mutations that affect the accuracy of the viral polymerase have been identified by in vitro analysis of the fidelity of DNA synthesis, by using enzymological (gel-based) and genetic assays (e.g., M13mp2 lacZ forward mutation assays). For several amino acid substitutions, these observations have been confirmed in cell culture using viral vectors. This review provides an update on studies leading to the identification of the major components of the fidelity center in retroviral RTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Menéndez-Arias
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" [Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) & Universidad Autónoma de Madrid], Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +34 91 196 4494
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HIV-1 Vpr oligomerization but not that of Gag directs the interaction between Vpr and Gag. J Virol 2009; 84:1585-96. [PMID: 19923179 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01691-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During HIV-1 assembly, the viral protein R (Vpr) is incorporated into newly made viral particles via an interaction with the C-terminal domain of the Gag polyprotein precursor Pr55(Gag). Vpr has been implicated in the nuclear import of newly made viral DNA and subsequently in its transcription. In addition, Vpr can affect the cell physiology by causing G(2)/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Vpr can form oligomers, but their roles have not yet been investigated. We have developed fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy-fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based assays to monitor the interaction between Pr55(Gag) and Vpr in HeLa cells. To that end, we used enhanced green fluorescent protein-Vpr that can be incorporated into the virus and tetracysteine (TC)-tagged Pr55(Gag)-TC. This TC motif is tethered to the C terminus of Pr55(Gag) and does not interfere with Pr55(Gag) trafficking and the assembly of virus-like particles (VLPs). Results show that the Pr55(Gag)-Vpr complexes accumulated mainly at the plasma membrane. In addition, results with Pr55(Gag)-TC mutants confirm that the (41)LXXLF domain of Gag-p6 is essential for Pr55(Gag)-Vpr interaction. We also report that Vpr oligomerization is crucial for Pr55(Gag) recognition and its accumulation at the plasma membrane. On the other hand, Pr55(Gag)-Vpr complexes are still formed when Pr55(Gag) carries mutations impairing its multimerization. These findings suggest that Pr55(Gag)-Vpr recognition and complex formation occur early during Pr55(Gag) assembly.
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Fritz JV, Didier P, Clamme JP, Schaub E, Muriaux D, Cabanne C, Morellet N, Bouaziz S, Darlix JL, Mély Y, de Rocquigny H. Direct Vpr-Vpr interaction in cells monitored by two photon fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and fluorescence lifetime imaging. Retrovirology 2008; 5:87. [PMID: 18808682 PMCID: PMC2562391 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-5-87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2008] [Accepted: 09/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) encodes several regulatory proteins, notably Vpr which influences the survival of the infected cells by causing a G2/M arrest and apoptosis. Such an important role of Vpr in HIV-1 disease progression has fuelled a large number of studies, from its 3D structure to the characterization of specific cellular partners. However, no direct imaging and quantification of Vpr-Vpr interaction in living cells has yet been reported. To address this issue, eGFP- and mCherry proteins were tagged by Vpr, expressed in HeLa cells and their interaction was studied by two photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. RESULTS Results show that Vpr forms homo-oligomers at or close to the nuclear envelope. Moreover, Vpr dimers and trimers were found in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus. Point mutations in the three alpha helices of Vpr drastically impaired Vpr oligomerization and localization at the nuclear envelope while point mutations outside the helical regions had no effect. Theoretical structures of Vpr mutants reveal that mutations within the alpha-helices could perturb the leucine zipper like motifs. The DeltaQ44 mutation has the most drastic effect since it likely disrupts the second helix. Finally, all Vpr point mutants caused cell apoptosis suggesting that Vpr-mediated apoptosis functions independently from Vpr oligomerization. CONCLUSION We report that Vpr oligomerization in HeLa cells relies on the hydrophobic core formed by the three alpha helices. This oligomerization is required for Vpr localization at the nuclear envelope but not for Vpr-mediated apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle V Fritz
- Département de Pharmacologie et Physico-Chimie des Interactions Cellulaires et Moléculaires, UMR 7175 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg 1, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch Cedex, France
| | - Pascal Didier
- Département de Pharmacologie et Physico-Chimie des Interactions Cellulaires et Moléculaires, UMR 7175 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg 1, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch Cedex, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Clamme
- Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Emmanuel Schaub
- Département de Pharmacologie et Physico-Chimie des Interactions Cellulaires et Moléculaires, UMR 7175 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg 1, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch Cedex, France
| | - Delphine Muriaux
- LaboRétro Unité de Virologie Humaine INSERM 758, IFR 128 Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Charlotte Cabanne
- Ecole Supérieure de Technologie des Biomolécules de Bordeaux, Université V Ségalen, Bordeaux 2, 146, rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
| | - Nelly Morellet
- Unité de Pharmacologie Chimique et Génétique, Inserm U640 CNRS UMR8151 UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques 4, Avenue de L'observatoire, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Serge Bouaziz
- Unité de Pharmacologie Chimique et Génétique, Inserm U640 CNRS UMR8151 UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques 4, Avenue de L'observatoire, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Luc Darlix
- LaboRétro Unité de Virologie Humaine INSERM 758, IFR 128 Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Yves Mély
- Département de Pharmacologie et Physico-Chimie des Interactions Cellulaires et Moléculaires, UMR 7175 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg 1, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch Cedex, France
| | - Hugues de Rocquigny
- Département de Pharmacologie et Physico-Chimie des Interactions Cellulaires et Moléculaires, UMR 7175 CNRS, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg 1, 74, Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch Cedex, France
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Votteler J, Schubert U. Ubiquitin ligases as therapeutic targets in HIV-1 infection. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2008; 12:131-43. [PMID: 18208363 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.12.2.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy has led to a profound reduction in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) related mortality; although, the complete eradication of the virus from infected individuals has never been achieved. In addition, due to the high mutation and evolution rate, drug-resistant viruses are continuously emerging. OBJECTIVE Genetically more stable cellular pathways represent attractive targets for innovative antiviral strategies, especially the ubiquitin proteasome system, which regulates various steps in the HIV replication cycle. METHODS This review focuses on certain interactions of HIV and E3 ligases as a major player in the ubiquitin proteasome system. RESULTS/CONCLUSION Due to the importance in HIV replication, and together with the high substrate specificity, E3 ligases can be considered as bona fide targets to interfere with HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Votteler
- University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Institute of Clinical and Molecular Virology, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
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