1
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Critical parameters for design and development of multivalent nanoconstructs: recent trends. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:2335-2358. [PMID: 35013982 PMCID: PMC8747862 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-021-01103-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A century ago, the groundbreaking concept of the magic bullet was given by Paul Ehrlich. Since then, this concept has been extensively explored in various forms to date. The concept of multivalency is among such advancements of the magic bullet concept. Biologically, the concept of multivalency plays a critical role in significantly huge numbers of biochemical interactions. This concept is the sole reason behind the higher affinity of biological molecules like viruses to more selectively target the host cell surface receptors. Multivalent nanoconstructs are a promising approach for drug delivery by the active targeting principle. Designing and developing effective and target-specific multivalent drug delivery nanoconstructs, on the other hand, remain a challenge. The underlying reason for this is a lack of understanding of the crucial interactions between ligands and cell surface receptors, as well as the design of nanoconstructs. This review highlights the need for a better theoretical understanding of the multivalent effect of what happens to the receptor-ligand complex after it has been established. Furthermore, the critical parameters for designing and developing robust multivalent systems have been emphasized. We have also discussed current advances in the design and development of multivalent nanoconstructs for drug delivery. We believe that a thorough knowledge of theoretical concepts and experimental methodologies may transform a brilliant idea into clinical translation.
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Castro M, van Santen HM, Férez M, Alarcón B, Lythe G, Molina-París C. Receptor Pre-Clustering and T cell Responses: Insights into Molecular Mechanisms. Front Immunol 2014; 5:132. [PMID: 24817867 PMCID: PMC4012210 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell activation, initiated by T cell receptor (TCR) mediated recognition of pathogen-derived peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex class I or II molecules (pMHC), shows exquisite specificity and sensitivity, even though the TCR-pMHC binding interaction is of low affinity. Recent experimental work suggests that TCR pre-clustering may be a mechanism via which T cells can achieve such high sensitivity. The unresolved stoichiometry of the TCR makes TCR-pMHC binding and TCR triggering, an open question. We formulate a mathematical model to characterize the pre-clustering of T cell receptors (TCRs) on the surface of T cells, motivated by the experimentally observed distribution of TCR clusters on the surface of naive and memory T cells. We extend a recently introduced stochastic criterion to compute the timescales of T cell responses, assuming that ligand-induced cross-linked TCR is the minimum signaling unit. We derive an approximate formula for the mean time to signal initiation. Our results show that pre-clustering reduces the mean activation time. However, additional mechanisms favoring the existence of clusters are required to explain the difference between naive and memory T cell responses. We discuss the biological implications of our results, and both the compatibility and complementarity of our approach with other existing mathematical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Castro
- Grupo de Dinámica No-Lineal and Grupo Interdisciplinar de Sistemas Complejos (GISC), Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería (ICAI), Universidad Pontificia Comillas , Madrid , Spain
| | - Hisse M van Santen
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Inmunología, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid , Madrid , Spain
| | - María Férez
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Inmunología, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid , Madrid , Spain
| | - Balbino Alarcón
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Inmunología, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid , Madrid , Spain
| | - Grant Lythe
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds , Leeds , UK
| | - Carmen Molina-París
- Department of Applied Mathematics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds , Leeds , UK
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3
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Aeluri M, Chamakuri S, Dasari B, Guduru SKR, Jimmidi R, Jogula S, Arya P. Small Molecule Modulators of Protein–Protein Interactions: Selected Case Studies. Chem Rev 2014; 114:4640-94. [DOI: 10.1021/cr4004049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Madhu Aeluri
- Dr. Reddy’s Institute
of Life Sciences (DRILS), University of Hyderabad Campus Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Srinivas Chamakuri
- Dr. Reddy’s Institute
of Life Sciences (DRILS), University of Hyderabad Campus Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Bhanudas Dasari
- Dr. Reddy’s Institute
of Life Sciences (DRILS), University of Hyderabad Campus Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Shiva Krishna Reddy Guduru
- Dr. Reddy’s Institute
of Life Sciences (DRILS), University of Hyderabad Campus Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Ravikumar Jimmidi
- Dr. Reddy’s Institute
of Life Sciences (DRILS), University of Hyderabad Campus Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Srinivas Jogula
- Dr. Reddy’s Institute
of Life Sciences (DRILS), University of Hyderabad Campus Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Prabhat Arya
- Dr. Reddy’s Institute
of Life Sciences (DRILS), University of Hyderabad Campus Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
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4
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Levine PM, Carberry TP, Holub JM, Kirshenbaum K. Crafting precise multivalent architectures. MEDCHEMCOMM 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c2md20338c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Development of elaborate three-dimensional multivalent displays appended on natural or synthetic molecular scaffolds.
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5
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Liu P, Wang Z, Lin J, Hu X. An Efficient Route to Quinolines and Other Compounds by Iron-Catalysed Cross-Dehydrogenative Coupling Reactions of Glycine Derivatives. European J Org Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201101656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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6
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Kimura RH, Jones DS, Jiang L, Miao Z, Cheng Z, Cochran JR. Functional mutation of multiple solvent-exposed loops in the Ecballium elaterium trypsin inhibitor-II cystine knot miniprotein. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16112. [PMID: 21364742 PMCID: PMC3041754 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Ecballium elaterium trypsin inhibitor (EETI-II), a 28-amino acid member of the knottin family of peptides, contains three interwoven disulfide bonds that form multiple solvent-exposed loops. Previously, the trypsin binding loop of EETI-II has been engineered to confer binding to several alternative molecular targets. Here, EETI-II was further explored as a molecular scaffold for polypeptide engineering by evaluating the ability to mutate two of its structurally adjacent loops. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Yeast surface display was used to engineer an EETI-II mutant containing two separate integrin binding epitopes. The resulting knottin peptide was comprised of 38 amino acids, and contained 11- and 10-residue loops compared to wild-type EETI-II, which naturally contains 6- and 5-residue loops, respectively. This knottin peptide bound to α(v)β(3) and α(v)β(5) integrins with affinities in the low nanomolar range, but bound weakly to the related integrins α(5)β(1) and α(iib)β(3). In addition, the engineered knottin peptide inhibited tumor cell adhesion to vitronectin, an extracellular matrix protein that binds to α(v)β(3) and α(v)β(5) integrins. A (64)Cu radiolabeled version of this knottin peptide demonstrated moderate serum stability and excellent tumor-to-muscle and tumor-to-blood ratios by positron emission tomography imaging in human tumor xenograft models. Tumor uptake was ∼3-5% injected dose per gram (%ID/g) at one hour post injection, with rapid clearance of probe through the kidneys. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE We demonstrated that multiple loops of EETI-II can be mutated to bind with high affinity to tumor-associated integrin receptors. The resulting knottin peptide contained 21 (>50%) non-native amino acids within two mutated loops, indicating that extended loop lengths and sequence diversity were well tolerated within the EETI-II scaffold. A radiolabeled version of this knottin peptide showed promise for non-invasive imaging of integrin expression in living subjects. However, reduced serum and metabolic stability were observed compared to an engineered integrin-binding EETI-II knottin peptide containing only one mutated loop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard H. Kimura
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Cancer Center, Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Douglas S. Jones
- Department of Bioengineering, Cancer Center, Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Lei Jiang
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Cancer Center, Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Zheng Miao
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Cancer Center, Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Zhen Cheng
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Cancer Center, Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer R. Cochran
- Department of Bioengineering, Cancer Center, Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
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7
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Painter CA, Cruz A, López GE, Stern LJ, Zavala-Ruiz Z. Model for the peptide-free conformation of class II MHC proteins. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2403. [PMID: 18545669 PMCID: PMC2408972 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2008] [Accepted: 05/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major histocompatibility complex proteins are believed to undergo significant conformational changes concomitant with peptide binding, but structural characterization of these changes has remained elusive. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Here we use molecular dynamics simulations and experimental probes of protein conformation to investigate the peptide-free state of class II MHC proteins. Upon computational removal of the bound peptide from HLA-DR1-peptide complex, the alpha50-59 region folded into the P1-P4 region of the peptide binding site, adopting the same conformation as a bound peptide. Strikingly, the structure of the hydrophobic P1 pocket is maintained by engagement of the side chain of Phe alpha54. In addition, conserved hydrogen bonds observed in crystal structures between the peptide backbone and numerous MHC side chains are maintained between the alpha51-55 region and the rest of the molecule. The model for the peptide-free conformation was evaluated using conformationally-sensitive antibody and superantigen probes predicted to show no change, moderate change, or dramatic changes in their interaction with peptide-free DR1 and peptide-loaded DR1. The binding observed for these probes is in agreement with the movements predicted by the model. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE This work presents a molecular model for peptide-free class II MHC proteins that can help to interpret the conformational changes known to occur within the protein during peptide binding and release, and can provide insight into possible mechanisms for DM action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrie A. Painter
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Anthony Cruz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
| | - Gustavo E. López
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
| | - Lawrence J. Stern
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (LS); (ZZ)
| | - Zarixia Zavala-Ruiz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
- * E-mail: (LS); (ZZ)
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8
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Vollers SS, Stern LJ. Class II major histocompatibility complex tetramer staining: progress, problems, and prospects. Immunology 2008; 123:305-13. [PMID: 18251991 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02801.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) tetramers in the detection and analysis of antigen-specific T cells has become more widespread since its introduction 11 years ago. Early challenges in the application of tetramer staining to CD4+ T cells centred around difficulties in the expression of various class II MHC allelic variants and the detection of low-frequency T cells in mixed populations. As many of the technical obstacles to class II MHC tetramer staining have been overcome, the focus has returned to uncertainties concerning how oligomer valency and T-cell receptor/MHC affinity affect tetramer binding. Such issues have become more important with an increase in the number of studies relying on direct ex vivo analysis of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells. In this review we discuss which problems in class II MHC tetramer staining have been solved to date, and which matters remain to be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina S Vollers
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
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9
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Maity P, König B. Synthesis and Structure of 1,4-Dipiperazino Benzenes: Chiral Terphenyl-type Peptide Helix Mimetics. Org Lett 2008; 10:1473-6. [DOI: 10.1021/ol8002749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Prantik Maity
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Burkhard König
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany
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10
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Coluccia AML, Gunby RH, Tartari CJ, Scapozza L, Gambacorti-Passerini C, Passoni L. Anaplastic lymphoma kinase and its signalling molecules as novel targets in lymphoma therapy. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007; 9:515-32. [PMID: 15948671 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.9.3.515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A crucial issue in the development of molecularly-targeted anticancer therapies is the identification of appropriate molecules whose targeting would result in tumour regression with a minimal level of systemic toxicity. Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase, normally expressed at low levels in the nervous system. As a consequence of chromosomal translocations involving the alk gene (2p23), ALK is also aberrantly expressed and constitutively activated in approximately 60% of CD30+ anaplastic large cell lymphomas (ALCLs). Due to the selective overexpression of ALK in tumour cells, its direct involvement in the process of malignant transformation and its frequent expression in ALCL patients, the authors recognise ALK as a suitable candidate for the development of molecularly targeted strategies for the therapeutic treatment of ALK-positive lymphomas. Strategies targeting ALK directly or indirectly via the inhibition of the protein networks responsible for ALK oncogenic signalling are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M L Coluccia
- Oncogenic Fusion Genes and Proteins Unit, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
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11
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Sadowsky JD, Fairlie WD, Hadley EB, Lee HS, Umezawa N, Nikolovska-Coleska Z, Wang S, Huang DCS, Tomita Y, Gellman SH. (α/β+α)-Peptide Antagonists of BH3 Domain/Bcl-xL Recognition: Toward General Strategies for Foldamer-Based Inhibition of Protein−Protein Interactions. J Am Chem Soc 2006; 129:139-54. [PMID: 17199293 DOI: 10.1021/ja0662523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The development of molecules that bind to specific protein surface sites and inhibit protein-protein interactions is a fundamental challenge in molecular recognition. New strategies for approaching this challenge could have important long-term ramifications in biology and medicine. We are exploring the concept that unnatural oligomers with well-defined conformations ("foldamers") can mimic protein secondary structural elements and thereby block specific protein-protein interactions. Here, we describe the identification and analysis of helical peptide-based foldamers that bind to a specific cleft on the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL by mimicking an alpha-helical BH3 domain. Initial studies, employing a fluorescence polarization (FP) competition assay, revealed that among several alpha/beta- and beta-peptide foldamer backbones only alpha/beta-peptides intended to adopt 14/15-helical secondary structure display significant binding to Bcl-xL. The most tightly binding Bcl-xL ligands are chimeric oligomers in which an N-terminal alpha/beta-peptide segment is fused to a C-terminal alpha-peptide segment ((alpha/beta + alpha)-peptides)). Sequence-affinity relationships were probed via standard and nonstandard techniques (alanine scanning and hydrophile scanning, respectively), and the results allowed us to construct a computational model of the ligand/Bcl-xL complex. Analytical ultracentrifugation with a high-affinity (alpha/beta + alpha)-peptide established 1:1 ligand:Bcl-xL stoichiometry under FP assay conditions. Binding selectivity studies with the most potent (alpha/beta + alpha)-peptide, conducted via surface plasmon resonance measurements, revealed that this ligand binds tightly to Bcl-w as well as to Bcl-xL, while binding to Bcl-2 is somewhat weaker. No binding could be detected with Mcl-1. We show that our most potent (alpha/beta + alpha)-peptide can induce cytochrome C release from mitochondria, an early step in apoptosis, in cell lysates, and that this activity is dependent upon inhibition of protein-protein interactions involving Bcl-xL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack D Sadowsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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12
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Veldman C, Eming R, Wolff-Franke S, Sonderstrup G, Kwok WW, Hertl M. Detection of low avidity desmoglein 3-reactive T cells in pemphigus vulgaris using HLA-DR beta 1*0402 tetramers. Clin Immunol 2006; 122:330-7. [PMID: 17113829 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2006.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2006] [Revised: 09/14/2006] [Accepted: 09/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we developed a HLA class II tetramer-based detection system utilizing DRB1*0402 tetramers loaded with recently identified immunodominant peptides of desmoglein 3 (Dsg3), the major autoantigen of pemphigus vulgaris (PV). Initial experiments demonstrated staining of a Dsg3-reactive T cell hybridoma which was derived from HLA-DR0402-transgenic mice with loaded PE-labeled DRbeta1*0402 tetramers. However, staining of autoreactive T cell clones (TCC) derived from PV patients resulted only in positive staining by addition of exogenous peptides to the staining reactions. There was a dose-dependent specific binding of TCC to the tetramers with the agonistic Dsg3 peptide which was not altered by exogenous unrelated Dsg3 peptide. Noteworthy, the TCC did not stain with HLA-DR4 tetramers complexed with unrelated Dsg3 peptides. The findings of this study suggest that HLA class II tetramers may provide a highly specific approach to monitor ex vivo the T cellular autoimmune response against Dsg3 in patients with PV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Veldman
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University of Marburg, Deutschhausstrasse 9, D-35033 Marburg, Germany.
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13
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Hardcastle IR, Ahmed SU, Atkins H, Farnie G, Golding BT, Griffin RJ, Guyenne S, Hutton C, Källblad P, Kemp SJ, Kitching MS, Newell DR, Norbedo S, Northen JS, Reid RJ, Saravanan K, Willems HMG, Lunec J. Small-Molecule Inhibitors of the MDM2-p53 Protein−Protein Interaction Based on an Isoindolinone Scaffold. J Med Chem 2006; 49:6209-21. [PMID: 17034127 DOI: 10.1021/jm0601194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
From a set of weakly potent lead compounds, using in silico screening and small library synthesis, a series of 2-alkyl-3-aryl-3-alkoxyisoindolinones has been identified as inhibitors of the MDM2-p53 interaction. Two of the most potent compounds, 2-benzyl-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(3-hydroxypropoxy)-2,3-dihydroisoindol-1-one (76; IC(50) = 15.9 +/- 0.8 microM) and 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzyloxy)-2-propyl-2,3-dihydroisoindol-1-one (79; IC(50) = 5.3 +/- 0.9 microM), induced p53-dependent gene transcription, in a dose-dependent manner, in the MDM2 amplified, SJSA human sarcoma cell line.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian R Hardcastle
- Northern Institute for Cancer Research, School of Natural Sciences--Chemistry, Bedson Building, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom.
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14
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Yang J, Huston L, Berger D, Danke NA, Liu AW, Disis ML, Kwok WW. Expression of HLA-DP0401 molecules for identification of DP0401 restricted antigen specific T cells. J Clin Immunol 2006; 25:428-36. [PMID: 16160911 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-005-6095-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2005] [Accepted: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Human histocompatibility leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DPA1*0103/DPB1*0401 (DP0401) is the most common HLA class II molecule and is present in approximately 45% of the Caucasian population. In this study, soluble HLA-DP0401 molecules were expressed as "empty'' class II molecules in insect cells. Utilizing these soluble DP molecules and the Tetramer Guided Epitope Mapping (TGEM) approach, the influenza A Puerto Rico/8/34 matrix protein (MP) derived peptide MP(41-60) VLMEWLKTRPILSPLTKGIL and the Clostridium tetani Tetanus Toxin (TT) derived peptide TT(634-653) DKISDVSTIVPYIGPALNIV were identified as the DP0401 restricted MP and TT epitopes, respectively. In addition, T cells specific for the cancer testis antigen NY-ESO-1 and the breast/ovarian cancer over-expressing antigen Her-2/neu were detected in DP0401 subjects by DP0401 tetramers. The availability of HLA-DP0401 tetramers should facilitate the study of DP restricted T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junbao Yang
- Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, WA, USA
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15
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Kiessling LL, Gestwicki JE, Strong LE. Synthetische multivalente Liganden als Sonden für die Signaltransduktion. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200502794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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16
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Kiessling LL, Gestwicki JE, Strong LE. Synthetic multivalent ligands as probes of signal transduction. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006; 45:2348-68. [PMID: 16557636 PMCID: PMC2842921 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200502794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 687] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cell-surface receptors acquire information from the extracellular environment and coordinate intracellular responses. Many receptors do not operate as individual entities, but rather as part of dimeric or oligomeric complexes. Coupling the functions of multiple receptors may endow signaling pathways with the sensitivity and malleability required to govern cellular responses. Moreover, multireceptor signaling complexes may provide a means of spatially segregating otherwise degenerate signaling cascades. Understanding the mechanisms, extent, and consequences of receptor co-localization and interreceptor communication is critical; chemical synthesis can provide compounds to address the role of receptor assembly in signal transduction. Multivalent ligands can be generated that possess a variety of sizes, shapes, valencies, orientations, and densities of binding elements. This Review focuses on the use of synthetic multivalent ligands to characterize receptor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L Kiessling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1101 University Ave., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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17
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Parra-López C, Calvo-Calle JM, Cameron TO, Vargas LE, Salazar LM, Patarroyo ME, Nardin E, Stern LJ. Major histocompatibility complex and T cell interactions of a universal T cell epitope from Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:14907-17. [PMID: 16565072 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m511571200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A 20-residue sequence from the C-terminal region of the circumsporozoite protein of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is considered a universal helper T cell epitope because it is immunogenic in individuals of many major histocompatibility complex (MHC) haplotypes. Subunit vaccines containing T* and the major B cell epitope of the circumsporozoite protein induce high antibody titers to the malaria parasite and significant T cell responses in humans. In this study we have evaluated the specificity of the T* sequence with regard to its binding to the human class II MHC protein DR4 (HLA-DRB1*0401), its interactions with antigen receptors on T cells, and the effect of natural variants of this sequence on its immunogenicity. Computational approaches identified multiple potential DR4-binding epitopes within T*, and experimental binding studies confirmed the following two tight binding epitopes: one located toward the N terminus (the T*-1 epitope) and one at the C terminus (the T*-5 epitope). Immunization of a human DR4 volunteer with a peptide-based vaccine containing the T* sequence elicited CD4+ T cells that recognize each of these epitopes. Here we present an analysis of the immunodominant N-terminal epitope T*-1. T*-1 residues important for interaction with DR4 and with antigen receptors on T*-specific T cells were mapped. MHC tetramers carrying DR4/T*-1 MHC-peptide complexes stained and efficiently stimulated these cells in vitro. T*-1 overlaps a region of the protein that has been described as highly polymorphic; however, the particular T*-1 residues required for anchoring to DR4 were highly conserved in Plasmodium sequences described to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Parra-López
- Fundación Instituto de Inmunología de Colombia, Grupo Funcional Inmunología, Carrera 50 No. 26-00, Bogotá, Colombia
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18
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Yoder NC, Kumar K. Selective protein-protein interactions driven by a phenylalanine interface. J Am Chem Soc 2006; 128:188-91. [PMID: 16390146 DOI: 10.1021/ja055494k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Highly specific protein-protein interfaces have been the subject of considerable study for their potential utility in disrupting or interrogating cellular signaling and control networks. We report that coiled-coil sequences decorated with phenylalanine core residues fold into stable alpha-helical bundles and that these self-sort from similar peptide assemblies with aliphatic core side chains. For self-assembled ensembles derived from 30-residue monomeric peptides, the DeltaG of specificity is -1.5 kcal/mol, comparable with earlier self-sorting coiled-coil systems. Intriguingly, although this interface is constructed from canonical amino acids, it does not appear to have been exploited in native proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Yoder
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
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19
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Broderick L, Brooks SP, Takita H, Baer AN, Bernstein JM, Bankert RB. IL-12 reverses anergy to T cell receptor triggering in human lung tumor-associated memory T cells. Clin Immunol 2006; 118:159-69. [PMID: 16271513 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2005.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2005] [Revised: 09/08/2005] [Accepted: 09/14/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Memory T cells in human non-small cell lung cancer are unresponsive to progressing tumors. T cells were evaluated at the single cell level by imaging the nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB and NFAT via immunofluorescence confocal microscopy as an early measure of responsiveness to T cell receptor triggering. Little translocation of NF-kappaB or NFAT occurred in tumor-associated T cells in response to CD3+CD28 cross-linking under conditions which led to maximal translocation in normal donor peripheral blood T cells. TNF-alpha induced maximal NF-kappaB translocation in these T cells, indicating that they remain receptive to alternative signaling pathways, and pulsing with IL-12 prior to TCR triggering reversed their apparent anergy. T cells from additional chronic inflammatory microenvironments demonstrated a similar refractoriness to TCR activation, suggesting either that a common regulatory mechanism present within the microenvironment controls these cells or that with continuous antigen exposure, they remain refractory to activation via the TCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Broderick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 138 Farber Hall, State University of New York at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
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20
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Sadowsky JD, Schmitt MA, Lee HS, Umezawa N, Wang S, Tomita Y, Gellman SH. Chimeric (alpha/beta + alpha)-peptide ligands for the BH3-recognition cleft of Bcl-XL: critical role of the molecular scaffold in protein surface recognition. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:11966-8. [PMID: 16117535 DOI: 10.1021/ja053678t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Molecules that bind to specific surface sites on proteins are of great interest from both fundamental and practical perspectives. We are exploring a ligand development strategy that is based on oligomers with discrete folding propensities ("foldamers"); we target a specific cleft on the cancer-associated protein Bcl-xL because this system is well characterized structurally. In vivo, this cleft binds to alpha-helical segments (BH3 domains) of other proteins. We evaluated several types of helical foldamer, built entirely from beta-amino acid residues or from mixtures of alpha- and beta-amino acid residues, and ultimately identified foldamers in the latter class that bind very tightly to Bcl-xL. Our results suggest that combining different types of foldamer backbones will be an effective and general strategy for creating high-affinity and specific ligands for protein surface sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack D Sadowsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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21
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Subramanian S, Parthasarathy R, Sen S, Boder ET, Discher DE. Species- and cell type-specific interactions between CD47 and human SIRPalpha. Blood 2005; 107:2548-56. [PMID: 16291597 PMCID: PMC1895743 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2005-04-1463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
CD47 on red blood cells (RBCs) reportedly signals "self" by binding SIRPalpha on phagocytes, at least in mice. Such interactions across and within species, from mouse to human, are not yet clear and neither is the relation to cell adhesion. Using human SIRPalpha1 as a probe, antibody-inhibitable binding to CD47 was found only with human and pig RBCs (not mouse, rat, or cow). In addition, CD47-mediated adhesion of human and pig RBCs to SIRPalpha1 surfaces resists sustained forces in centrifugation (as confirmed by atomic force microscopy) but only at SIRPalpha-coating densities far above those measurable on human neutrophils, monocytes, and THP-1 macrophages. While interactions strengthen with deglycosylation of SIRPalpha1, low copy numbers explain the absence of RBC adhesion to phagocytes under physiologic conditions and imply that the interaction being studied is not responsible for red cell clearance in humans. Evidence of clustering nonetheless suggests mechanisms of avidity enhancement. Finally, using the same CD47 antibodies and soluble SIRPalpha1, bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells were assayed and found to display CD47 but not bind SIRPalpha1 significantly. The results thus demonstrate that SIRPalpha-CD47 interactions, which reportedly define self, exhibit cell type specificity and limited cross-species reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyamsundar Subramanian
- School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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22
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Somu RV, Johnson RL. Synthesis of Pipecolic Acid-Based Spiro Bicyclic Lactam Scaffolds as β-Turn Mimics. J Org Chem 2005; 70:5954-63. [PMID: 16018691 DOI: 10.1021/jo050529k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A series of 6.5.5 spiro bicyclic lactam scaffolds were synthesized from pipecolic acid in a sequence of reactions that was initiated with the alpha-allylation of tert-butoxycarbonyl pipecolic acid. Oxidative cleavage of the olefin to give an aldehyde followed by condensation with D-cysteine methyl ester gave a mixture of pipecolyl thiazolidines. Cyclization of the pipecolyl thiazolidines with Mukaiyama's reagent yielded the spiro bicyclic lactams 4a-d. Epimerization of the 7'a bridgehead carbon under acidic conditions was observed for those spiro bicyclic lactam scaffolds with an S stereochemistry at this position. The 6.5.5 spiro bicyclic lactam scaffold with the 3'S,6'R,7'aR stereochemistry mimicked a type II beta-turn, while the scaffold with the 3'S,6'S,7'aR stereochemistry mimicked a right-handed poly-d-proline II helix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravindranadh V Somu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 308 Harvard Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Rush TS, Grant JA, Mosyak L, Nicholls A. A shape-based 3-D scaffold hopping method and its application to a bacterial protein-protein interaction. J Med Chem 2005; 48:1489-95. [PMID: 15743191 DOI: 10.1021/jm040163o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 412] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we describe the first prospective application of the shape-comparison program ROCS (Rapid Overlay of Chemical Structures) to find new scaffolds for small molecule inhibitors of the ZipA-FtsZ protein-protein interaction, a proposed antibacterial target. The shape comparisons are made relative to the crystallographically determined, bioactive conformation of a high-throughput screening (HTS) hit. The use of ROCS led to the identification of a set of novel, weakly binding inhibitors with scaffolds presenting synthetic opportunities to further optimize biological affinity and lacking development issues associated with the HTS lead. These ROCS-identified scaffolds would have been missed using other structural similarity approaches such as ISIS 2D fingerprints. X-ray crystallographic analysis of one of the new inhibitors bound to ZipA reveals that the shape comparison approach very accurately predicted the binding mode. These experimental results validate this use of ROCS for chemotype switching or "lead hopping" and suggest that it is of general interest for lead identification in drug discovery endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas S Rush
- Department of Chemical & Screening Sciences, Wyeth Research, 87 Cambridge Park Drive, Cambridge, MA 02140, USA.
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24
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Larsson A, Johansson SMC, Pinkner JS, Hultgren SJ, Almqvist F, Kihlberg J, Linusson A. Multivariate design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of peptide inhibitors of FimC/FimH protein-protein interactions in uropathogenic Escherichia coli. J Med Chem 2005; 48:935-45. [PMID: 15715464 DOI: 10.1021/jm040818l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A peptide library targeting protein-protein interactions crucial for pilus assembly in Gram negative bacteria has been designed using statistical molecular design. A nonamer peptide scaffold was used, with seven positions being varied. The selection was performed in the building block space, and previously known structure-activity data were included in the design procedure. This resulted in a heavily reduced library consisting of 32 peptides which was prepared by solid-phase synthesis. The ability of the peptides to inhibit the protein-protein interaction between the periplasmic chaperone FimC and the pilus adhesin FimH was then determined in an ELISA. Novel peptides with the capability to inhibit the FimC/FimH protein-protein interaction to the same extent as the native FimC peptides were discovered. Multivariate QSAR studies of the response in the ELISA gave valuable information on the properties of amino acids which were preferred at the seven positions in the nonamer scaffold. This information can be used in attempts to develop optimized peptides and peptidomimetics that inhibit pilus assembly in pathogenic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Larsson
- Department of Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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25
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Wiznycia AV, Rush JR, Baures PW. Synthesis of Symmetric Bis(imidazole-4,5-dicarboxamides) Substituted with Amino Acids. J Org Chem 2004; 69:8489-91. [PMID: 15549826 DOI: 10.1021/jo049045z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A series of symmetric bis(imidazole-4,5-dicarboxamides) (bis-I45DCs) were prepared with amino acid esters and a variety of linker groups. The critical pyrazine intermediates, substituted with amino acid esters, were synthesized by stoichiometric control of the amino acid ester, even though primary alkanamines, in comparison, generally offer less selectivity for this reaction. Diamines are added to subsequently react with and open the remaining acyl imidazole bonds in the pyrazine intermediates and thereby yield the bis-I45DCs.
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27
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Raimundo BC, Oslob JD, Braisted AC, Hyde J, McDowell RS, Randal M, Waal ND, Wilkinson J, Yu CH, Arkin MR. Integrating Fragment Assembly and Biophysical Methods in the Chemical Advancement of Small-Molecule Antagonists of IL-2: An Approach for Inhibiting Protein−Protein Interactions. J Med Chem 2004; 47:3111-30. [PMID: 15163192 DOI: 10.1021/jm049967u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Fragment assembly has shown promise for discovering small-molecule antagonists for difficult targets, including protein-protein interactions. Here, we describe a process for identifying a 60 nM inhibitor of the interleukin-2 (IL-2)/IL-2 receptor (IL-2Ralpha) interaction. By use of fragment-based approaches, a compound with millimolar affinity was evolved to a hit series with low micromolar activity, and these compounds were optimized into a lead series with nanomolar affinity. Fragment assembly was useful not only for hit identification, but also for lead optimization. Throughout the discovery process, biophysical methods and structural biology demonstrated that compounds bound reversibly to IL-2 at the IL-2 receptor binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C Raimundo
- Sunesis Pharmaceuticals Inc., 341 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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28
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Carven GJ, Chitta S, Hilgert I, Rushe MM, Baggio RF, Palmer M, Arenas JE, Strominger JL, Horejsi V, Santambrogio L, Stern LJ. Monoclonal Antibodies Specific for the Empty Conformation of HLA-DR1 Reveal Aspects of the Conformational Change Associated with Peptide Binding. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:16561-70. [PMID: 14757758 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m314315200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins bind peptides and present them at the cell surface for interaction with CD4+ T cells as part of the system by which the immune system surveys the body for signs of infection. Peptide binding is known to induce conformational changes in class II MHC proteins on the basis of a variety of hydrodynamic and spectroscopic approaches, but the changes have not been clearly localized within the overall class II MHC structure. To map the peptide-induced conformational change for HLA-DR1, a common human class II MHC variant, we generated a series of monoclonal antibodies recognizing the beta subunit that are specific for the empty conformation. Each antibody reacted with the empty but not the peptide-loaded form, for both soluble recombinant protein and native protein expressed at the cell surface. Antibody binding epitopes were characterized using overlapping peptides and alanine scanning substitutions and were localized to two distinct regions of the protein. The pattern of key residues within the epitopes suggested that the two epitope regions undergo substantial conformational alteration during peptide binding. These results illuminate aspects of the structure of the empty forms and the nature of the peptide-induced conformational change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J Carven
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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29
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Rutledge SE, Volkman HM, Schepartz A. Molecular recognition of protein surfaces: high affinity ligands for the CBP KIX domain. J Am Chem Soc 2004; 125:14336-47. [PMID: 14624582 PMCID: PMC2926944 DOI: 10.1021/ja034508o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Potent and specific inhibitors of protein.protein interactions have potential both as therapeutic compounds and biological tools, yet discovery of such molecules remains a challenge. Our laboratory has recently described a strategy, called protein grafting, for the identification of miniature proteins that bind protein surfaces with high affinity and specificity and inhibit the formation of protein.protein complexes. In protein grafting, those residues that comprise a functional alpha-helical binding epitope are stabilized on the solvent-exposed alpha-helical face of the small yet stable protein avian pancreatic polypeptide (aPP). Here we use protein grafting in combination with molecular evolution by phage display to identify phosphorylated peptide ligands that recognize the shallow surface of CBP KIX with high nanomolar to low micromolar affinity. Furthermore, we show that grafting of the CBP KIX-binding epitope of CREB KID onto the aPP scaffold yields molecules capable of high affinity recognition of CBP KIX even in the absence of phosphorylation. Importantly, both classes of designed ligands exhibit high specificity for the target CBP KIX domain over carbonic anhydrase and calmodulin, two unrelated proteins that bind hydrophobic or alpha-helical molecules that might be encountered in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey E Rutledge
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8107, USA
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30
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Fischer NO, Verma A, Goodman CM, Simard JM, Rotello VM. Reversible “Irreversible” Inhibition of Chymotrypsin Using Nanoparticle Receptors. J Am Chem Soc 2003; 125:13387-91. [PMID: 14583034 DOI: 10.1021/ja0352505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Anionically functionalized amphiphilic nanoparticles efficiently inhibit chymotrypsin through electrostatic binding followed by protein denaturation. We demonstrate the ability to disrupt this "irreversible" inhibition of chymotrypsin through modification of the nanoparticle surface using cationic surfactants. Up to 50% of original chymotrypsin activity is rescued upon long-chain surfactant addition. Dynamic light-scattering studies demonstrate that chymotrypsin is released from the nanoparticle surface. The conformation of the rescued chymotrypsin was characterized by fluorescence and fluorescence anisotropy, indicating that chymotrypsin regains a high degree of native structure upon surfactant addition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas O Fischer
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
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31
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Koehler AN, Shamji AF, Schreiber SL. Discovery of an inhibitor of a transcription factor using small molecule microarrays and diversity-oriented synthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2003; 125:8420-1. [PMID: 12848532 DOI: 10.1021/ja0352698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Small molecule microarrays were screened to identify a small molecule ligand for Hap3p, a subunit of the yeast Hap2/3/4/5p transcription factor complex. The compound, named haptamide A, was determined to have a KD of 5.03 muM for binding to Hap3p using surface plasmon resonance analysis. Haptamide A also inhibited activation of a GDH1-lacZ reporter gene in a dose-dependent fashion. To explore structure-activity relationships, 11 derivatives of haptamide A were prepared using the same synthetic route that was developed for the original library synthesis. Analysis of dissociation constants and IC50 values for the reporter gene assay revealed a more potent inhibitor, haptamide B, with a KD of 330 nM. Whole-genome transcriptional profiling was used to compare effects of haptamide B with a hap3Delta yeast strain. Treatment with haptamide B, like the deletion mutant, reduced lactate-induced transcription of several genes from wild-type levels. Profiling the genetic "knockout" and the chemical genetic "knockdown" led to the identification of several genes that are regulated by Hap3p under nonfermentative conditions. These results demonstrate that a small molecule discovered using the small molecule microarray binding assay can permeate yeast cells and reach its target transcription factor protein in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela N Koehler
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard Biophysics Program, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Institute of Chemistry and Cell Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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32
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Cohen CJ, Denkberg G, Schiffenbauer YS, Segal D, Trubniykov E, Berke G, Reiter Y. Simultaneous monitoring of binding to and activation of tumor-specific T lymphocytes by peptide-MHC. J Immunol Methods 2003; 277:39-52. [PMID: 12799038 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(03)00110-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The recent advent of peptide-MHC tetramers has provided a new and effective tool for studying antigen-specific T cell populations through monitoring tetramer binding to T cells by flow cytometry. Yet information regarding T cell activation induced by the bound tetramers cannot be deduced from binding studies alone; complementary methods are needed to bridge this gap. To this end, we have developed a new approach that now enables monitoring both binding to and activation of T cells by peptide-MHC tetramers at the single-cell level. For this purpose, we have employed the CellScan, a non-flow cytometer designed for repetitive measurements of optical parameters (e.g., fluorescence intensity and polarization) of individual living cells. A melanoma-specific MART1 CTL line and a gp100-specific CTL clone were incubated with specific and control single-chain peptide-MHC tetramers for 45 min. Subsequently, the fluorescence intensity and polarization were measured by the CellScan. Specific binding of fluorescently labeled peptide-MHC tetramers to CTLs, recorded by the CellScan, was comparable to that measured by flow cytometry. CellScan monitoring of the degree of fluorescence polarization of fluorescein diacetate-labeled CTLs that were reacted with tetramers revealed specific activation of the CTLs, which was confirmed by cytokine (INF gamma) production. These results provide a new means of monitoring both the binding to and activation of T lymphocytes by cognate peptide-MHC complexes at the single-cell level, which can now be applied to distinguish between cognate responding and anergic T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril J Cohen
- Faculty of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Room 333, Technion City, 32000, Haifa, Israel
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Abstract
Adaptive immunity depends on antigen-specific activation of resting lymphocytes. Using high-resolution live-cell imaging, a single ligand has been found to trigger a biochemical response in T cells. On the basis of this and other recent findings, a 'pseudodimer' with one foreign- and one self-antigen-engaged receptor linked via a CD4 molecule has been proposed as the fundamental unit of effective T-cell signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald N Germain
- Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bldg 10, Rm 11N311, 10 Center Drive MSC-1892, Bethesda, MD 20892-1892, USA.
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Saito G, Swanson JA, Lee KD. Drug delivery strategy utilizing conjugation via reversible disulfide linkages: role and site of cellular reducing activities. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2003; 55:199-215. [PMID: 12564977 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-409x(02)00179-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1041] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The first disulfide linkage-employing drug conjugate that exploits the reversible nature of this unique covalent bond was recently approved for human use. Increasing numbers of drug formulations that incorporate disulfide bonds have been reported, particularly in the next generation macromolecular pharmaceuticals. These are designed to exploit differences in the reduction potential at different locations within and upon cells. The recent characterization of a novel redox enzyme in endosomes and lysosomes adds more excitement to this approach. This review focuses on understanding where and how the disulfide bond in the bioconjugate is reduced upon contact with biological milieu, which affects delivery design and the interpretation of the delivery strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Go Saito
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1065, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald T Nepom
- Benaroya Research Institute, Virginia Mason Research Center, Seattle, WA 98101, USA.
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Manley PW, Furet P, Bold G, Brüggen J, Mestan J, Meyer T, Schnell CR, Wood J, Haberey M, Huth A, Krüger M, Menrad A, Ottow E, Seidelmann D, Siemeister G, Thierauch KH. Anthranilic acid amides: a novel class of antiangiogenic VEGF receptor kinase inhibitors. J Med Chem 2002; 45:5687-93. [PMID: 12477352 DOI: 10.1021/jm020899q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Two readily synthesized anthranilamide, VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been prepared and evaluated as angiogenesis inhibitors. 2-[(4-Pyridyl)methyl]amino-N-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide (5) and N-3-isoquinolinyl-2-[(4-pyridinylmethyl)amino]benzamide (7) potently and selectively inhibit recombinant VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 kinases. As a consequence of their physicochemical properties, these anthranilamides readily penetrate cells and are absorbed following once daily oral administration to mice. Both 5 and 7 potently inhibit VEGF-induced angiogenesis in an implant model, with ED(50) values of 7 mg/kg. In a mouse orthotopic model of melanoma, 5 and 7 potently inhibited both the growth of the primary tumor as well as the formation of spontaneous peripheral metastases. The anthranilamides 5 and 7 represent a new structural class of VEGFR kinase inhibitors, which possess potent antiangiogenic and antitumor properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Manley
- Oncology Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland.
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38
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Eckardt LH, Naumann K, Pankau WM, Rein M, Schweitzer M, Windhab N, von Kiedrowski G. DNA nanotechnology: Chemical copying of connectivity. Nature 2002; 420:286. [PMID: 12447432 DOI: 10.1038/420286a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lars Henning Eckardt
- Lehrstuhl für Bioorganische Chemie, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44780 Bochum, Germany
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39
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Kutzki O, Park HS, Ernst JT, Orner BP, Yin H, Hamilton AD. Development of a potent Bcl-x(L) antagonist based on alpha-helix mimicry. J Am Chem Soc 2002; 124:11838-9. [PMID: 12358513 DOI: 10.1021/ja026861k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The rational design of low-molecular weight ligands that disrupt protein-protein interactions is still a challenging goal in medicinal chemistry. Our approach to this problem involves the design of molecular scaffolds that mimic the surface functionality projected along one face of an alpha-helix. Using a terphenyl scaffold, which in a staggered conformation closely reproduces the projection of functionality on the surface of an alpha-helix, we designed mimics of the pro-apoptotic alpha-helical Bak-peptide as inhibitors of the Bak/Bcl-xL interaction. This led to the development of a potent Bcl-xL antagonist (KD = 114 nM), whose binding affinity for Bcl-xL was assessed by a fluorescence polarization assay. To determine the binding site of the developed inhibitor we used docking studies and an HSQC-NMR experiment with 15N-labeled Bcl-xL protein. These studies suggest that the inhibitor is binding in the same hydrophobic cleft as the Bak- and Bad-peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Kutzki
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, P.O. Box 208107, New Haven, CT 06520-8107, USA
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40
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Hugues S, Malherbe L, Filippi C, Glaichenhaus N. Generation and use of alternative multimers of peptide/MHC complexes. J Immunol Methods 2002; 268:83-92. [PMID: 12213345 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(02)00202-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
For many years, the detection of antigen-specific T cells has relied on indirect in vitro assays such as cytokine secretion, proliferation or chromium release assays. Things have dramatically changed during the past few years, thanks to the imagination of several investigators who have developed very elegant strategies to produce multivalent peptide/MHC complexes. One of these strategies has been to produce peptide-loaded monomeric biotinylated MHC molecules, which could be obtained as tetramers upon incubation with tetravalent streptavidin. Although this latter approach has been by far the most popular, this review focuses on other strategies which have also been successful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Hugues
- Institut de Pharmacologie Moleculaire et Cellulaire UMR6097, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 660 Route des Lucioles, 06560 Valbonne, France
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Cameron TO, Norris PJ, Patel A, Moulon C, Rosenberg ES, Mellins ED, Wedderburn LR, Stern LJ. Labeling antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells with class II MHC oligomers. J Immunol Methods 2002; 268:51-69. [PMID: 12213343 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(02)00200-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Class I MHC-peptide oligomers (MHC tetramers) have become popular reagents for the detection and characterization of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells. Class II MHC proteins can be produced by expression in Escherichia coli followed by in vitro folding, or by native expression in insect cells; biotin can be introduced by site-specific chemical modification of cysteine, or by enzymatic modification of a peptide tag; and a variety of fluorescent streptavidin preparations can be used for oligomerization. Here we review methodologies for production of fluorescent oligomers of soluble class II MHC proteins and discuss their use in analysis of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells. We explore the experimental conditions necessary for efficient staining of CD4(+) T cells using oligomers of class II MHC proteins, and we establish a standard protocol. Finally, we consider complications and challenges associated with these reagents, discuss the interpretation of staining results, and suggest future directions for investigation, in particular the use of MHC oligomers for the study of T cell avidity modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas O Cameron
- Department of Chemistry, MIT, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge 02139, USA
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Buckner JH, Holzer U, Novak EJ, Reijonen H, Kwok WW, Nepom GT. Defining antigen-specific responses with human MHC class II tetramers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 110:199-208. [PMID: 12170258 DOI: 10.1067/mai.2002.125976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Antigen-specific CD4(+) T lymphocytes play key roles in the orchestration of immune responses, including the initiation and amplification of allergic and immune-mediated disorders. Direct detection and quantitation of these cells is made possible by the use of HLA class II tetramers, soluble recombinant forms of a complex of HLA molecule and antigenic peptide that bind the antigen-specific T-cell receptor used for T-cell recognition. By using flow cytometry with fluorescent tetramers, specific T cells can be identified, recovered, and analyzed for functional markers and transcripts, helping to characterize the lineage and commitment program for individual lymphocytes. Several newly emerging uses for tetramers in clinical immunology are under development for patient management or prognosis when the number or nature of antigen-specific T cells can be clinically important. Tetramers might be useful as patient-monitoring tools for evaluating response to immunotherapy, providing a surrogate marker for the immunologic response foreshadowing a clinical response to either immune stimulation, suppression, or deviation therapeutic modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane H Buckner
- Benaroya Research Institute, Virginia Mason Research Center, 1201 Ninth Avenue, Seattle, WA 98101-2795, USA
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Toogood PL. Inhibition of protein-protein association by small molecules: approaches and progress. J Med Chem 2002; 45:1543-58. [PMID: 11931608 DOI: 10.1021/jm010468s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter L Toogood
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Global Research and Development, 2800 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105, USA.
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Ernst JT, Kutzki O, Debnath AK, Jiang S, Lu H, Hamilton AD. Design of a Protein Surface Antagonist Based onα-Helix Mimicry: Inhibition of gp41 Assembly and Viral Fusion. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/1521-3757(20020118)114:2<288::aid-ange288>3.0.co;2-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Nepom GT, Buckner JH, Novak EJ, Reichstetter S, Reijonen H, Gebe J, Wang R, Swanson E, Kwok WW. HLA class II tetramers: tools for direct analysis of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2002; 46:5-12. [PMID: 11817608 DOI: 10.1002/1529-0131(200201)46:1<5::aid-art10063>3.0.co;2-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Immunotherapies for human autoimmune and immune-mediated diseases are proliferating rapidly, and with these changes comes the opportunity to monitor patients for immune responses to therapy based on early surrogate markers for clinical responses. Class II tetramers have the potential to serve as these sorts of markers for immune monitoring, and thereby assist with patient management, therapy selection, and improved outcomes. However, important issues of TCR avidity require resolution, because much is still unknown regarding location, quantitation, and characterization of the human T cell response. Opportunities for application of tetramer technologies in the near future will enable both clinical progress and the development of new insights into human CD4+ T cell biology in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald T Nepom
- Virginia Mason Research Center and University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle 98101-2795, USA.
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46
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Svensson A, Larsson A, Emtenäs H, Hedenström M, Fex T, Hultgren SJ, Pinkner JS, Almqvist F, Kihlberg J. Design and evaluation of pilicides: potential novel antibacterial agents directed against uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Chembiochem 2001; 2:915-8. [PMID: 11948880 DOI: 10.1002/1439-7633(20011203)2:12<915::aid-cbic915>3.0.co;2-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A Svensson
- Organic Chemistry 2, Center for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund University P.O. Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
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47
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Bilgiçer B, Xing X, Kumar K. Programmed self-sorting of coiled coils with leucine and hexafluoroleucine cores. J Am Chem Soc 2001; 123:11815-6. [PMID: 11716746 DOI: 10.1021/ja016767o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B Bilgiçer
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155-5813, USA
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48
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Stone JD, Cochran JR, Stern LJ. T-cell activation by soluble MHC oligomers can be described by a two-parameter binding model. Biophys J 2001; 81:2547-57. [PMID: 11606269 PMCID: PMC1301723 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3495(01)75899-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
T-cell activation is essential for initiation and control of immune system function. T cells are activated by interaction of cell-surface antigen receptors with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins on the surface of other cells. Studies using soluble oligomers of MHC-peptide complexes and other types of receptor cross-linking agents have supported an activation mechanism that involves T cell receptor clustering. Receptor clustering induced by incubation of T cells with MHC-peptide oligomers leads to the induction of T-cell activation processes, including downregulation of engaged receptors and upregulation of the cell-surface proteins CD69 and CD25. Dose-response curves for these T-cell activation markers are bell-shaped, with different maxima and midpoints, depending on the valency of the soluble oligomer used. In this study, we have analyzed the activation behavior using a mathematical model that describes the binding of multivalent ligands to cell-surface receptors. We show that a simple equilibrium binding model accurately describes the activation data for CD4(+) T cells treated with MHC-peptide oligomers of varying valency. The model can be used to predict activation and binding behavior for T cells and MHC oligomers with different properties.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Binding Sites/physiology
- Binding, Competitive/physiology
- Cross-Linking Reagents/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Immunologic
- Down-Regulation/physiology
- Humans
- Lectins, C-Type
- Lymphocyte Activation/physiology
- Major Histocompatibility Complex/physiology
- Models, Biological
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Up-Regulation/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Stone
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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