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Hu G, Qu X, Bhalla K, Xue P, Bakkeren E, Lee CWJ, Kronstad JW. Loss of the putative Rab GTPase, Ypt7, impairs the virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1437579. [PMID: 39119141 PMCID: PMC11306161 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1437579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Small GTPases of the Rab family coordinate multiple membrane fusion and trafficking events in eukaryotes. In fungi, the Rab GTPase, Ypt7, plays a critical role in late endosomal trafficking, and is required for homotypic fusion events in vacuole biogenesis and inheritance. In this study, we identified a putative YPT7 homologue in Cryptococcus neoformans, a fungal pathogen causing life threatening meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised individuals. As part of an ongoing effort to understand mechanisms of iron acquisition in C. neoformans, we established a role for Ypt7 in growth on heme as the sole iron source. Deletion of YPT7 also caused abnormal vacuolar morphology, defective endocytic trafficking and autophagy, and mislocalization of Aph1, a secreted vacuolar acid phosphatase. Ypt7 localized to the vacuolar membrane and membrane contact sites between the vacuole and mitochondria (vCLAMPs), and loss of the protein impaired growth on inhibitors of the electron transport chain. Additionally, Ypt7 was required for robust growth at 39°C, a phenotype likely involving the calcineurin signaling pathway because ypt7 mutants displayed increased susceptibility to the calcineurin-specific inhibitors, FK506 and cyclosporin A; the mutants also had impaired growth in either limiting or high levels of calcium. Finally, Ypt7 was required for survival during interactions with macrophages, and ypt7 mutants were attenuated for virulence in a mouse inhalation model thus demonstrating the importance of membrane trafficking functions in cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanggan Hu
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Xianya Qu
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kabir Bhalla
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Peng Xue
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Erik Bakkeren
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Christopher W. J. Lee
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - James W. Kronstad
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Coelho C, Farrer RA. Pathogen and host genetics underpinning cryptococcal disease. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2020; 105:1-66. [PMID: 32560785 DOI: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2020.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cryptococcosis is a severe fungal disease causing 220,000 cases of cryptococcal meningitis yearly. The etiological agents of cryptococcosis are taxonomically grouped into at least two species complexes belonging to the genus Cryptococcus. All of these yeasts are environmentally ubiquitous fungi (often found in soil, leaves and decaying wood, tree hollows, and associated with bird feces especially pigeon guano). Infection in a range of animals including humans begins following inhalation of spores or aerosolized yeasts. Recent advances provide fundamental insights into the factors from both the pathogen and its hosts which influence pathogenesis and disease. The complex interactions leading to disease in mammalian hosts have also updated from the availability of better genomic tools and datasets. In this review, we discuss recent genetic research on Cryptococcus, covering the epidemiology, ecology, and evolution of Cryptococcus pathogenic species. We also discuss the insights into the host immune response obtained from the latest genetic modified host models as well as insights from monogenic disorders in humans. Finally we highlight outstanding questions that can be answered in the near future using bioinformatics and genomic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Coelho
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Rhys A Farrer
- Medical Research Council Centre for Medical Mycology at the University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom.
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Enzymatic characterization of clinical and environmental Cryptococcus neoformans strains isolated in Italy. Rev Iberoam Micol 2017; 34:77-82. [PMID: 28215482 DOI: 10.1016/j.riam.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast causing mainly opportunistic infections. The virulence factors involved in cryptococcosis pathogenesis include the presence and the size of the polysaccharide capsule, the production of melanin by phenoloxidase, the growth at 37°C and the enzyme secretion like proteinase, phospholipase and urease. Many other enzymes are secreted by C. neoformans but their role in the fungus virulence is not yet known. AIMS In order to investigate this topic, we compared the phospholipase production between strains from patients and from bird droppings, and we examined its relationship to phenoloxidase production. We further characterized the strains by determining the activity of 19 different extracellular enzymes. METHODS Two hundred and five Italian C. neoformans clinical isolates and 32 environmental isolates were tested. Phenoloxidase production was determined by the development of brown colonies on Staib's agar. Extracellular phospholipase activity was performed using the semiquantitative egg-yolk plate method. API ZYM commercial kit was used to observe the production and the activity of 19 different extracellular enzymes. RESULTS Statistical analysis of the results showed a significantly higher phospholipase activity in the clinical isolates than in the environmental isolates. No significant difference about the phenoloxidase production between both groups was found. Regarding the 19 extracellular enzymes tested using the API ZYM commercial kit, acid phosphatase showed the highest enzymatic activity in both groups. Concerning the enzyme α-glucosidase, the clinical isolates presented a significantly higher positivity percentage than the environmental isolates. A hundred percent positivity in the enzyme leucine arylamidase production was observed in both groups, but the clinical isolates metabolized a significantly greater amount of substrate. CONCLUSIONS The higher phospholipase production in the clinical isolates group confirms the possible role of this enzyme in the cryptococcosis pathogenesis. The extracellular activities of the enzymes acid phosphatase, α-glucosidase and leucine arylamidase, tested by means of the API ZYM commercial kit, appear to be very interesting. Many studies indicate that these enzymes are involved in the virulence of bacteria and parasites; our results suggest their possible role as virulence factors in Cryptococcus infections too.
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Hagen F, Khayhan K, Theelen B, Kolecka A, Polacheck I, Sionov E, Falk R, Parnmen S, Lumbsch HT, Boekhout T. Recognition of seven species in the Cryptococcus gattii/Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. Fungal Genet Biol 2015; 78:16-48. [PMID: 25721988 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2015.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 460] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Phylogenetic analysis of 11 genetic loci and results from many genotyping studies revealed significant genetic diversity with the pathogenic Cryptococcus gattii/Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. Genealogical concordance, coalescence-based, and species tree approaches supported the presence of distinct and concordant lineages within the complex. Consequently, we propose to recognize the current C. neoformans var. grubii and C. neoformans var. neoformans as separate species, and five species within C. gattii. The type strain of C. neoformans CBS132 represents a serotype AD hybrid and is replaced. The newly delimited species differ in aspects of pathogenicity, prevalence for patient groups, as well as biochemical and physiological aspects, such as susceptibility to antifungals. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry readily distinguishes the newly recognized species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferry Hagen
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Basidiomycete and Yeast Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius-Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Kantarawee Khayhan
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Basidiomycete and Yeast Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Phayao, Phayao, Thailand
| | - Bart Theelen
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Basidiomycete and Yeast Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anna Kolecka
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Basidiomycete and Yeast Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Itzhack Polacheck
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Ein Kerem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Edward Sionov
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Ein Kerem, Jerusalem, Israel; Department of Food Quality & Safety, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Rama Falk
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Ein Kerem, Jerusalem, Israel; Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Nir-David, Israel
| | - Sittiporn Parnmen
- Department of Medical Sciences, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | | | - Teun Boekhout
- CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Basidiomycete and Yeast Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Medical Mycology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China; Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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Molecular and functional diversity of yeast and fungal lipases: Their role in biotechnology and cellular physiology. Prog Lipid Res 2015; 57:40-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Djordjevic JT, Lev S. Phosphate theft: a path to fungal pathogenic success. MICROBIOLOGY AUSTRALIA 2015. [DOI: 10.1071/ma15018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Identification of Aph1, a phosphate-regulated, secreted, and vacuolar acid phosphatase in Cryptococcus neoformans. mBio 2014; 5:e01649-14. [PMID: 25227465 PMCID: PMC4172073 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01649-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans strains isolated from patients with AIDS secrete acid phosphatase, but the identity and role of the enzyme(s) responsible have not been elucidated. By combining a one-dimensional electrophoresis step with mass spectrometry, a canonically secreted acid phosphatase, CNAG_02944 (Aph1), was identified in the secretome of the highly virulent serotype A strain H99. We created an APH1 deletion mutant (Δaph1) and showed that Δaph1-infected Galleria mellonella and mice survived longer than those infected with the wild type (WT), demonstrating that Aph1 contributes to cryptococcal virulence. Phosphate starvation induced APH1 expression and secretion of catalytically active acid phosphatase in the WT, but not in the Δaph1 mutant, indicating that Aph1 is the major extracellular acid phosphatase in C. neoformans and that it is phosphate repressible. DsRed-tagged Aph1 was transported to the fungal cell periphery and vacuoles via endosome-like structures and was enriched in bud necks. A similar pattern of Aph1 localization was observed in cryptococci cocultured with THP-1 monocytes, suggesting that Aph1 is produced during host infection. In contrast to Aph1, but consistent with our previous biochemical data, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged phospholipase B1 (Plb1) was predominantly localized at the cell periphery, with no evidence of endosome-mediated export. Despite use of different intracellular transport routes by Plb1 and Aph1, secretion of both proteins was compromised in a Δsec14-1 mutant. Secretions from the WT, but not from Δaph1, hydrolyzed a range of physiological substrates, including phosphotyrosine, glucose-1-phosphate, β-glycerol phosphate, AMP, and mannose-6-phosphate, suggesting that the role of Aph1 is to recycle phosphate from macromolecules in cryptococcal vacuoles and to scavenge phosphate from the extracellular environment. Infections with the AIDS-related fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans cause more than 600,000 deaths per year worldwide. Strains of Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from patients with AIDS secrete acid phosphatase; however, the identity and role of the enzyme(s) are unknown. We have analyzed the secretome of the highly virulent serotype A strain H99 and identified Aph1, a canonically secreted acid phosphatase. By creating an APH1 deletion mutant and an Aph1-DsRed-expressing strain, we demonstrate that Aph1 is the major extracellular and vacuolar acid phosphatase in C. neoformans and that it is phosphate repressible. Furthermore, we show that Aph1 is produced in cryptococci during coculture with THP-1 monocytes and contributes to fungal virulence in Galleria mellonella and mouse models of cryptococcosis. Our findings suggest that Aph1 is secreted to the environment to scavenge phosphate from a wide range of physiological substrates and is targeted to vacuoles to recycle phosphate from the expendable macromolecules.
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Wagenhäuser MU, Ertas N, Sagban TA, Witte M, Hoffman T, Schelzig H, Oberhuber A. A 61-year-old man with disseminated intravascular coagulation: a case report. Ann Vasc Surg 2014; 28:1566.e17-22. [PMID: 24530714 DOI: 10.1016/j.avsg.2014.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) can frequently be observed in patients with severe inflammatory response. It is still correlated with a poor prognosis. Activation of coagulation activity leads to occlusions of small vessels resulting in various organ failure symptoms. In addition, secondary fibrinolysis leads to an increased risk of bleedings and means a therapeutic dilemma. Here, we present a case of a 61-year-old Caucasian man with a severe case of DIC and its clinical complications. METHODS We report the case of a man with a severe case of DIC. Data collection was performed retrospectively. RESULTS We report the case of a 61-year-old Caucasian man with contact to pigeon droppings in his medical history. This was followed by a rhinopharyngitis, an exanthema, and a recurring priapism. Thrombotic occlusions were predominant on admission, and necrosis of the lower legs, the hands, and the genital resulted in amputation. Hypoperfusion of the rectum and the bladder lead to the creation of a descendostoma and an uretrostoma. Anticoagulation was managed by continuous infusion of unfractionated heparin and activated protein C supplementation. Long-term anticoagulation is managed with rivaroxaban. CONCLUSIONS Cryptococcus soil inhalation may cause severe DIC resulting in extremity amputations; however, effective anticoagulation and activated protein C supplementation might extenuate the progress. As multiple complications might occur, an interdisciplinary cooperation is essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus U Wagenhäuser
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düssedorf, Germany.
| | - Neshlian Ertas
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düssedorf, Germany
| | - Tolga A Sagban
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düssedorf, Germany
| | - Mareike Witte
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düssedorf, Germany
| | - Till Hoffman
- Department of Hemostaseology, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düssedorf, Germany
| | - Hubert Schelzig
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düssedorf, Germany
| | - Alexander Oberhuber
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düssedorf, Germany
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Zanette RA, Ferreiro L, Alves SH, Jesus FP, Lautert C, Spanamberg A, Santurio JM. Enzymatic variability among Brazilian Pythium insidiosum isolates. Rev Iberoam Micol 2013; 30:264-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.riam.2012.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2012] [Revised: 12/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Chae H, Park G, Kim S, Jo H, Kim J, Jeoung H, An D, Kim N, Shin B, Kang Y, Chang K. Rapid direct identification ofCryptococcus neoformans from pigeon droppings by nested PCR usingCNLAC1 gene. Poult Sci 2012; 91:1983-9. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Stie J, Fox D. Blood-brain barrier invasion by Cryptococcus neoformans is enhanced by functional interactions with plasmin. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2011; 158:240-258. [PMID: 21998162 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.051524-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans can invade the central nervous system through diverse mechanisms. We examined a possible role for host plasma proteases in the neurotropic behaviour of this blood-borne fungal pathogen. Plasminogen is a plasma-enriched zymogen that can passively coat the surface of blood-borne pathogens and, upon conversion to the serine protease plasmin, facilitate pathogen dissemination by degrading vascular barriers. In this study, plasminogen-to-plasmin conversion on killed and viable hypoencapsulated strains of C. neoformans required the addition of plasminogen activator (PA), but this conversion occurred in the absence of supplemented PA when viable strains were cultured with brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMEC). Plasmin-coated C. neoformans showed an enhanced invasive ability in Matrigel invasion assays that was significantly augmented in the presence of BMEC. The invasive effect of plasmin required viable pathogen and correlated with rapid declines in BMEC barrier function. Plasmin-enhanced invasion was inhibited by aprotinin, carboxypeptidase B, the lysine analogue epsilon-aminocaproic acid, and by capsule development. C. neoformans caused plasminogen-independent declines in BMEC barrier function that were associated with pathogen-induced host damage; however, such declines were significantly delayed and less extensive than those observed with plasmin-coated pathogen. BMEC adhesion and damage by hypoencapsulated C. neoformans were diminished by capsule induction but unaltered by plasminogen and/or PA. We conclude that hypoencapsulated C. neoformans can invade BMEC by a plasmin-dependent mechanism, in vitro, and that small, or minimal, surface capsule expression during the blood-borne phase of cryptococcosis may promote virulence by means of plasmin(ogen) acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamal Stie
- Research Institute for Children, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Deborah Fox
- Department of Pediatrics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA.,Research Institute for Children, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
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Sánchez M, Colom F. Extracellular DNase activity of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. Rev Iberoam Micol 2010; 27:10-3. [PMID: 20167522 DOI: 10.1016/j.riam.2009.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2009] [Revised: 10/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular DNase activity was studied in 73 strains of Cryptococcus neoformans and 12 strains of Cryptococcus gattii. DNase activity was measured by DNase agar clearance with and without Methyl Green. All strains tested showed extracellular DNase activity and no significant difference was found betweenC. neoformans and C. gattii strains. DNase production was higher in strains from clinical origin (average radius of 6.2 mm) than among environmental strains (average radius of 2.9 mm). The extracellular enzyme may be detected by DNA substrate PAGE assays and its molecular weight was estimated at 31 kD. These results suggest that extracellular DNase could be considered as a virulence factor involved in C. neoformans-C. gattii species complex pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Sánchez
- Grupo BSM (Biotecnología, Salud y Medio Ambiente), Departamento de Producción Vegetal y Microbiología, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Alicante, Spain.
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Chan MY, Tay ST. Enzymatic characterisation of clinical isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii and other environmental Cryptococcus spp. Mycoses 2010; 53:26-31. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2008.01654.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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[In vitro determination of virulence factors activity associated with several Cryptococcus neoformans clinical isolates]. Rev Iberoam Micol 2009; 25:145-9. [PMID: 18785782 DOI: 10.1016/s1130-1406(08)70034-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Different phenotypic characteristics associated with virulence of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex have shown an important role in their pathogenicity. In this study we have determined the role of phenotypically and genotypically factors of some virulence factors from clinical isolates in the two species of the complex; 35 C. neoformans and 19 Cryptococcus gattii. Growth at 37 degrees C, macroscopic and microscopic morphology, switching phenomenon, activity of 23 extracellular enzymes, variability of the colonies in agar with phloxin B; phospholipase B gene, and the mating type were determined by PCR; the molecular pattern was determined by URA5 RFLP. All isolates grew at 37 degrees C, the capsular size was greater in C. gattii (1.87 microm -/+1.47 microm) than in C. neoformans (0.83 microm -/+0.15 microm). Switching was observed mainly in isolates of C. gattii. All isolates expressed the enzyme urease, a lower activity of the proteases (Pz= 0.54), but a higher activity of the phospholipase (Pz=0.43) and phenoloxidase (Pz=0.003) was determined for C. gattii.
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