Herpes zoster guideline of the German Dermatology Society (DDG)

The barriers and facilitators of herpes zoster vaccination intentions of urban residents in China: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

In an aging society, herpes zoster (HZ) increases the health burden on infected patients. While quantitative studies point to a lack of willingness to accept the HZ vaccine in China, there is limited number of studies with in-depth qualitative analysis on HZ vaccination intention. This study undertakes a qualitive study method to identify the barriers and facilitators behind urban residents' HZ vaccination intention in three China cities, and contributes towards some targeted vaccination promotion suggestions to China and other LMICs with similar low coverage of HZ vaccination.

METHODS

We conducted 12 focus group discussions in three cities of China. In each discussion we recruited 3 to 6 participants aged 20 and older to catch the views on the HZ vaccine from residents with a wider age range. Participants were recruited by purposive sampling techniques. Guided by the health belief model, thematic analysis was used to group participants' HZ vaccine attitudes and to identify the barriers and facilitators to HZ vaccination.

RESULTS

The attitude of 59 participants participating in the focus group discussions showed a low-level acceptability of the HZ vaccine with only 27.1% (16/59) displaying a willingness to HZ vaccine uptake. The barriers to HZ vaccination included limited or incorrect conception on HZ prevalence, risk factors, susceptibility, symptoms, prevention and treatment methods, and the high cost of the HZ vaccine. Perceived vulnerability to HZ, fear of HZ pain and individuals' financial capacity were the strongest facilitators to HZ vaccination. In addition, it was found that advocacy of HZ vaccination by health professionals or government financial subsidies to HZ vaccination, could attenuate the above barriers to HZ vaccine uptake.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed a series of barriers and facilitators of HZ vaccination intention. We recommend HZ education and advocacy by health workers and government health officials to address the limited HZ knowledge and HZ misconceptions, and the government (or health insurance providers) to pay or subsidize the high costs of HZ vaccination to increase the HZ vaccination rate.

Varicella Zoster Virus Infection and Pregnancy: An Optimal Management Approach

Varicella-zoster virus is an α-herpes virus with a double-stranded DNA genome, which causes two main clinical pictures: varicella or chickenpox and herpes zoster. Chickenpox is the primary infection, predominantly affecting children, and it presents with fever and a cutaneous eruption consisting of a vesicular, pruritic, and painful rash. Herpes zoster is a viral infection that typically develops in adulthood as a result of the reactivation of the varicella-zoster virus. If acquired during pregnancy, chickenpox may be responsible for serious complications for the mother, the fetus, or the newborn. The most frequent complication of primary varicella-zoster virus infection in mothers is varicella pneumonia, while encephalitis and hepatitis are rare. The effects on the fetus due to chickenpox infection depend on the stage of pregnancy when the mother becomes infected. If the infection occurs during the first trimester, it does not increase the risk of miscarriage. However, if the infection occurs during the first or second trimester, it may cause fetal varicella syndrome or congenital varicella syndrome. During pregnancy, if the varicella-zoster virus reactivates, it usually does not cause harm to the fetus or lead to any birth defects. However, it may increase maternal morbidity due to herpes zoster and its complications. In the case of primary varicella-zoster virus infection in pregnant women, about 20% of newborns may get neonatal or infantile herpes zoster without any complications. However, it is recommended to start early treatment of herpes zoster in pregnant women as it is believed to accelerate the healing process of skin lesions and alleviate pain, reducing both its duration and severity. Through this narrative review, we discuss the approach to the optimal management of varicella-zoster virus infection during pregnancy.

Lymphocyte counts predict optimal timing of chemotherapy reinitiation after antivirus treatment for herpes zoster in children with leukemia

Herpes zoster (HZ) is rare in healthy children, but more prevalent in those with leukemia. Optimal timing of chemotherapy reinitiation after HZ treatment is challenging because chemotherapy suppresses immunity and increases risk of HZ relapse. We aimed to optimize the timing of chemotherapy reinitiation after HZ therapy in children with leukemia. The study included 31 children with acute leukemia and HZ infection. General information, clinical symptoms, laboratory test results, duration of HZ treatment, and prognosis were compared with those of children with leukemia alone. Correlation analysis was performed for 20 children who restarted chemotherapy after HZ treatment. Of 31 children with leukemia and HZ, 67.74% had lesions at multiple sites. The median time from chemotherapy initiation to HZ onset was 14.1 (1.5-29.5) months. Among 27 children included in the follow-up, there was one case of HZ relapse. After excluding children who did not continue chemotherapy after HZ treatment, the median interval between completion of HZ therapy and chemotherapy reinitiation in the remaining 20 children was 8.00 (- 3 to 27) days. Lymphocyte counts (LY#) on restarting chemotherapy correlated inversely with HZ lesion healing time (p < 0.05). LY# at the time of HZ onset were lower than those pre- and post-onset, and lower than those in the control group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, children with leukemia have a good HZ prognosis, but an increased risk of HZ recurrence. LY# at the time of chemotherapy reinitiation may be a useful indicator for selecting the optimal interval between antiviral therapy completion and chemotherapy reinitiation.

Efficacy and safety of therapies related to acupuncture for acute herpes zoster: A PRISMA systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Herpes zoster (HZ) is mainly characterized by intense pain and severe skin lesions, particularly during the acute phase, which seriously affects the patient's quality of life. Acupuncture is a widely used and effective treatment for HZ. However, there are many types of acupuncture, which have different curative efficacy. This study employed a network meta-analysis (NMA) to assess and rank the clinical efficacy of different acupuncture therapies.

METHODS

The database of Cochrane Library, Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Chinese BioMedical Database, VIP Database, and Wanfang Database were searched from inception to December 31, 2022 to identify eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of acupuncture related therapies in the treatment of acute HZ. The outcome indicators measured were visual analogue scale (VAS), date of cessation of herpes increase (DCHI), effective rate (ER), postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), and adverse events (AEs). Bayesian network meta-analyses were performed using the GeMTC package (version 1.0-1) and R software (version 4.2.3).

RESULTS

A total of 59 RCTs with 3930 patients were included. The results of this NMA were as follows: compared with pharmacotherapy, electroacupuncture (EA) + pricking and cupping (PC) shown the best efficacy to improve VAS score and reduce DCHI. In terms of ER, EA + fire needle (FN) had the highest results of probability ranking. PC was more effective in reducing the incidence of PHN. Furthermore, this study shown that the incidence of AEs associated with acupuncture-related therapies was acceptable.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicated that therapies related to acupuncture were both effective and safe in treating acute HZ, and could significantly reduce patients' symptoms such as pain and skin lesions with fewer adverse events. Clinically, the selection of the appropriate therapy should be based on practical considerations. However, due to the limitations of this study, more high-quality trials are required to evaluate the efficacy and safety of acupuncture-related therapy for the treatment of acute HZ.

Comparison of efficacy of acupuncture-related therapy in the treatment of herpes zoster: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVE

A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of acupuncture-related therapy in the treatment of herpes zoster (HZ) and to provide a reference for the clinical treatment of herpes zoster.

METHODS

PubMed, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Web of Science, CNKI, VIP database, Wanfang Database, and SinoMED Chinese and English databases were systematically searched for RCTs on acupuncture-related therapy for HZ until February 2023. Literature screening, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment were performed independently by 2 researchers. R4.2.1 and Stata15.1 software were used for data analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 26 RCTs involving 1929 HZ patients were included, and the network meta-analysis results showed that acupotomy appeared to be most effective in terms of improving VAS scores and the time of incrustation; SUCRA cumulative probability ranking showed the best efficacy of bloodletting in improving efficiency and the time of ceasing new blisters, acupuncture in improving the time of decrustation, and moxibustion in reducing the incidence of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN).

CONCLUSIONS

Through a comprehensive comparison of 9 different acupuncture therapies, acupotomy was the optimal treatment to improve VAS pain scores and the time of incrustation; bloodletting, acupuncture, fire needle, and moxibustion could be effective intervention measures to improve the time of ceasing new blisters and decrustation and reduce the incidence of PHN; Western medicine was closely related to adverse reactions. The conclusions need to be further verified due to the limitations of the study.

Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus in an Immunocompetent Child With Concurrent COVID-19 Infection: A Case Report and Literature Review

Herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) is a rare complication of herpes zoster (HZ) that can occur in pediatric patients. It can have significant implications for affected individuals, with the potential for patients to experience ocular complications. Additionally, HZO can have a chronic disease course, requiring long-term treatment in some patients. Following the progression of the COVID-19 pandemic, reports worldwide have identified a potential association between HZO and COVID-19. This case report describes a rare case of a child presenting HZO during a COVID-19 infection.

Current Methods for the Detection of Antibodies of Varicella-Zoster Virus: A Review

Infection with the varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox and shingles, which lead to significant morbidity and mortality globally. The detection of serum VZV-specific antibodies is important for the clinical diagnosis and sero-epidemiological research of VZV infection, and for assessing the effect of VZV vaccine immunization. Over recent decades, a variety of methods for VZV antibody detection have been developed. This review summarizes and compares the current methods for detecting VZV antibodies, and discussed future directions for this field.

Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus in a Healthy Toddler Fully Immunized Against Varicella-Zoster Virus: A Case Report and Review of Treatment Strategies in Children

Herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) is a rare presentation of herpes zoster in children; however, it may become chronic and debilitating. The pathophysiology of HZO complications is not completely understood and may include virus virulence, vascular and neural inflammation and immune reactivity. Therefore, clinical experts suggest an antiviral agent combined with topical steroids, but treatment duration and the need for secondary prophylaxis, given the likelihood of recurrence, are not clearly defined. We present a complex case of HZO in a varicella zoster virus (VZV)-vaccinated toddler successfully treated with acyclovir and topical steroids. We also present a review of the relevant literature regarding the therapeutic management and long-term sequelae of HZO in children.

An Analysis of Spontaneously Reported Data of Vesicular and Bullous Cutaneous Eruptions Occurring Following Vaccination with the Adjuvanted Recombinant Zoster Vaccine

Introduction

With the approval of the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV; Shingrix, GSK) in October 2017, GSK established enhanced safety surveillance measures to allow prompt identification of potential safety signals not observed during clinical development. In Germany, cases of vesicular and bullous cutaneous eruptions following RZV vaccination were reported.

Objective

Our objective was to search and analyse 2.5 years of worldwide spontaneously reported post-marketing data for vesicular and bullous cutaneous eruptions, represented by adverse events suggestive of (1) herpes zoster (HZ) and (2) non-HZ vesicular and bullous cutaneous eruptions, that occurred following RZV vaccination.

Methods

We conducted a descriptive analysis of all identified reports of HZ and non-HZ vesicular and bullous cutaneous eruptions following RZV vaccination and an observed versus expected (O/E) analysis of reports of HZ that met criteria of varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivations following RZV vaccination (i.e., time to onset [TTO] of the event < 30 days or missing after any dose).

Results

Until the data lock point, 32,597,779 RZV doses had been distributed globally. There were 2423 reports of HZ (including complications) identified, of which 645 met the criteria of possible vaccination failure (i.e., TTO of the event ≥ 30 days or missing following a complete RZV vaccination schedule). The O/E analysis of 1928 reports assessed as possible VZV reactivations indicated that the observed number of cases was lower than that expected in the general population. Additionally, 810 reports of non-HZ vesicular and bullous cutaneous eruptions were identified, including injection site rashes attributed to the vaccine’s reactogenicity.

Conclusion

This review of spontaneously reported post-marketing data did not raise safety concerns regarding the occurrence of vesicular and bullous cutaneous eruptions following vaccination with RZV.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40264-021-01118-3.

Shingles is a disease caused by reactivation of the chickenpox virus. It mostly affects adults aged 50 years and older and patients of all ages who have an impaired immune system. Diagnosis of shingles is often based only on the presence of symptoms such as a typical rash and pain. However, rashes can have various other causes (e.g., allergies, autoimmune diseases, and infections). Consequently, rashes with other causes may be misdiagnosed as shingles. Adults at increased risk of shingles and/or aged 50 years and older may be vaccinated with Shingrix (GSK, Belgium) to protect them from shingles and its complications. Since Shingrix became available in Germany, blister-like skin rashes have been reported that occurred shortly after vaccination. We searched the GSK safety database for reports of blister-like skin rashes that occurred following vaccination with Shingrix and that were spontaneously reported from countries where Shingrix was first marketed. To analyse these reports of rashes, we described the reports that we retrieved, we performed a statistical analysis to quantify whether the number of events assessed as reactivations of the chickenpox virus following Shingrix vaccination was higher than the number of reactivations that would be expected in the general population, and we described possible explanations for the observed rashes and underlying disease mechanisms. Our analyses did not raise safety concerns related to the onset of these rashes after vaccination with Shingrix. This paper raises awareness about the varying causes of rashes since a shingles-like rash that onsets shortly after vaccination with Shingrix is not necessarily caused by vaccination. In conclusion, this analysis shows that caution is needed when evaluating rashes in older adults and that all potential contributing factors (e.g., pre-existing diseases, medication, vaccination) should be considered.

Efficacy and safety of bloodletting for herpes zoster: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The study aims to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of bloodletting therapy for herpes zoster.

METHODS

The following electronic databases will be searched from PubMed (1966 to March 2020), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (update to March 2020), EMBASE (1980 to March 2020), China National Knowledge Infrastructure (1979 to March 2020), Wan Fang Data (1980 to March 2020), Chinese Scientific Journal Database (1989 to March 2020), Chinese Biomedical Database (1978 to March 2020) and traditional Chinese medicine Literature Analysis and Retrieval Database (1949 to March 2020). All randomized controlled trials without any limitation of blinding or publication language about this topic will be included, exclude cohort studies and case reports. Two independent researchers will operate article retrieval, duplication removing, screening, quality evaluation, and data analyses by Review Manager (V.5.3.5). Meta-analyses, subgroup analysis, and/or descriptive analysis will be performed based on the included data conditions.

RESULTS

High-quality synthesis and/or descriptive analysis of current evidence will be provided from cure rate, converting to clinical diagnosis rate, and side effects of bloodletting.

CONCLUSION

This study will provide the evidence of whether bloodletting is an effective and safe intervention for herpes zoster.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020171976.

Risk of recurrent herpes zoster in a population-based cohort study of older adults

BACKGROUND

There are limited data on zoster recurrence.

OBJECTIVE

To examine in detail zoster recurrence in a population-based cohort.

METHODS

Using data from a large cohort (The 45 and Up Study) with linked medical data (2004-2015), the incidences of first and recurrent zoster were examined by using survival analysis methods.

RESULTS

Over 1,846,572 person-years of follow-up, of 17,413 participants who had a first zoster episode (incidence, 9.43 per 1000 person-years; 95% confidence interval, 9.29-9.57), 675 (3.9%) experienced a recurrence. The mean time between first and recurrent zoster was 2 years for those aged 45-54 years and 3 years for those aged 55 years and older. Among those with a first zoster, the incidence of recurrence was 11.05 (95% confidence interval, 10.24-11.91) per 1000 person-years, and higher recurrence incidence occurred in women compared to men, in younger compared to older participants, and in immunosuppressed compared to nonimmunosuppressed participants. Recurrence appeared lower in the 12 months after zoster onset but then remained consistent at approximately 12.00 per 1000 person-years in the following 8 years.

LIMITATIONS

Recurrence may be underestimated because of the use of administrative data for case ascertainment. Potential misclassification of nonimmunosuppressed participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the vaccination of people who have already experienced zoster and underpin the need for additional studies on immunogenicity and vaccine efficacy in these populations.

Efficacy comparison of different acupuncture methods for herpes zoster: A Bayesian analysis protocol

BACKGROUND

Acupuncture methods (include moxibustion) are used frequently in the treatment of herpes zoster. However, the choice is usually made only based on personal experience among different acupuncture methods. This study aims to compare the efficacy of different acupuncture methods for herpes zoster.

METHODS

All randomized controlled trials of acupuncture methods for herpes zoster will be searched in 7 databases including Cochrane Library, Embase, PubMed, Web of Science, Wan-fang database, China National Knowledge Infrastructure database, and VIP Chinese Science and Technique Journals database database. After screening process, effectiveness rate will be extracted from all the included randomized controlled trials as primary outcomes. The Bayesian network meta-analysis will be conducted by generate mixed treatment comparisons 0.14.3, Stata13.0, and Review Man 5.3.

RESULTS

The results of this study will be submitted to a peer-reviewed journal for publication.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review will compare the efficacy of different acupuncture treatments for herpes zoster and find a better selection guideline for clinicians and patients.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020175189.

Inhibitory effect of amenamevir on acute herpetic pain and postherpetic neuralgia in mice infected with herpes simplex virus-1

BACKGROUND

Amenamevir (AMNV) is a helicase-primase inhibitor with antiviral activity against herpesviruses [herpes simplex viruses (HSV)-1 and -2, and varicella-zoster virus], which are associated with the development of acute herpetic pain (AHP) and postherpetic neuralgia. However, the inhibitory effects of helicase-primase inhibitors on AHP and postherpetic neuralgia remain incompletely understood.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we investigated the effects of AMNV on AHP and postherpetic pain (PHP) in HSV-1-infected mice accompanied by zosteriform-like skin lesions.

METHODS

HSV-1 was percutaneously infected on the femoral region of mice. AMNV was orally administered twice a day for 5 days. Pain-related response in the hind paw was evaluated using a paintbrush. The infiltration of inflammatory cells in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and spinal cord (SC) was evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin staining. The viral load in DRG and the expression of pain-related genes in SC were measured by real-time PCR.

RESULTS

Pain response was begun to be observed from day 3 post-infection (pi) in HSV-1-infected mice. AMNV administered repeatedly from day 3 pi or day 4 pi, but not day 5 pi, showed an inhibitory effect on the development of AHP and the transition to PHP. Repeated AMNV administration inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration and increases in the viral load and the expression of pain-related genes (ATF-3, TNF-α, COX-2).

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that AMNV potently suppresses the development of AHP and the transition to PHP as a consequence of decreased viral load in DRG and reduced expression of pain-related genes in SC.

[S2k guideline for the diagnosis and therapy of zoster and post-zoster neuralgia]

Diese Leitlinie richtet sich an Dermatologen, Ophthalmologen, HNO-Ärzte, Pädiater, Neurologen, Virologen sowie Infektiologen, Anästhesisten und Allgemeinmediziner in Klinik und Praxis und dient zur Information für andere medizinische Fachrichtungen, die an der Behandlung des Zoster beteiligt sind. Darüber hinaus soll die Leitlinie Kostenträgern und politischen Entscheidungsträgern zur Orientierung dienen. Die Leitlinie wurde im formellen Konsensusverfahren (S2k) von Dermatologen, Virologen/Infektiologen, Ophthalmologen, HNO-Ärzten, Neurologen, Pädiatern und Anästhesisten/Schmerzmedizinern erstellt.

Die Leitlinie stellt einen Überblick über die klinische und molekulare Diagnostik sowie den Antigennachweis, die Antikörperkultur und Viruskultur dar. Diagnostisch besondere Situationen und komplizierte Verläufe der Erkrankung finden ebenfalls Berücksichtigung. Die antivirale Therapie des Zoster und der Postzosterneuralgie wird im Allgemeinen und für besondere Situationen dargelegt. Detaillierte Angaben zur Schmerzbehandlung finden Erwähnung und sind in einer Übersicht dargestellt. Ebenso werden die lokaltherapeutischen Maßnahmen thematisiert.

A clinico-epidemiological multicenter study of herpes zoster in immunocompetent and immunocompromised hospitalized children

Purpose

There are limited population-based data regarding herpes zoster in children. Thus we conducted a multi-institutional epidemiological analysis of herpes zoster in children and comparative analysis according to their immune status.

Materials and Methods

The study included 126 children under the age of 18 years who were hospitalized for herpes zoster at 8 hospitals in South Korea, between July 2009 and June 2015. The subjects were divided into 2 groups according to their immune status, and medical records were reviewed.

Results

There were 61 cases (48.4%) in the immunocompetent group and 65 cases (51.6%) in the immunocompromised group. Median age was older in immunocompromised group (11.4 vs. 8.6) (p<0.001). The mean duration of hospitalization was longer in immunocompromised group (11.0 vs. 6.6) (p<0.001). Patients were treated with oral or intravenous antiviral agents. A total of 12 in immunocompetent group were cured only by oral acyclovir. No treatment failure was found in both groups. Six immunocompromised patients had postherpetic neuralgia and 1 case was in immunocompetent group. In immunocompetent children, herpes zoster was likely caused by early varicella infection. There was no increase in progression of severity in both groups due to appropriate treatment.

Conclusion

Early initiation of therapy is necessary for those in immunocompromised conditions. And inactivated herpes zoster vaccination may be considered in immunocompromised adolescents in the future.

Comparison of the efficacy of various doses of steroids for acute facial palsy

BACKGROUND

Although steroids are effective for multiple types of acute facial palsies, an appropriate dosage remains to be established.

AIMS/OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study is to compare the efficacy of high, low, and moderate doses of steroids in patients with acute facial palsy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 49 patients with Bell palsy, Ramsay Hunt syndrome, or traumatic facial palsy. The patients were divided into 3 groups. We determined the initial House-Brackmann (HB) grade of each patient and the HB grade at the 3-month follow-up to determine whether complete recovery was achieved.

RESULTS

Results of electroneurography showed that the average and maximum rates of degeneration were not statistically different among the groups. Although the HB grade showed improvement after 3 months, the initial score was not significantly different from that at the follow-up. The degree of recovery was not significantly different among the groups.

CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings showed that a high dose of steroids did not achieve outcomes that were more clinically meaningful than did that of a moderate or a low-dose steroid. Therefore, moderate or low doses of steroids may be sufficient for the treatment of acute facial palsy.

Efficacy, effectiveness, and safety of herpes zoster vaccines in adults aged 50 and older: systematic review and network meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To compare the efficacy, effectiveness, and safety of the herpes zoster live attenuated vaccine with the herpes zoster adjuvant recombinant subunit vaccine or placebo for adults aged 50 and older.

DESIGN

Systematic review with bayesian meta-analysis and network meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Library (inception to January 2017), grey literature, and reference lists of included studies.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR STUDY SELECTION

Experimental, quasi-experimental, and observational studies that compared the live attenuated vaccine with the adjuvant recombinant subunit vaccine, placebo, or no vaccine in adults aged 50 and older. Relevant outcomes were incidence of herpes zoster (primary outcome), herpes zoster ophthalmicus, post-herpetic neuralgia, quality of life, adverse events, and death.

RESULTS

27 studies (22 randomised controlled trials) including 2 044 504 patients, along with 18 companion reports, were included after screening 2037 titles and abstracts, followed by 175 full text articles. Network meta-analysis of five randomised controlled trials found no statistically significant differences between the live attenuated vaccine and placebo for incidence of laboratory confirmed herpes zoster. The adjuvant recombinant subunit vaccine, however, was statistically superior to both the live attenuated vaccine (vaccine efficacy 85%, 95% credible interval 31% to 98%) and placebo (94%, 79% to 98%). Network meta-analysis of 11 randomised controlled trials showed the adjuvant recombinant subunit vaccine to be associated with statistically more adverse events at injection sites than the live attenuated vaccine (relative risk 1.79, 95% credible interval 1.05 to 2.34; risk difference 30%, 95% credible interval 2% to 51%) and placebo (5.63, 3.57 to 7.29 and 53%, 30% to 73%, respectively). Network meta-analysis of nine randomised controlled trials showed the adjuvant recombinant subunit vaccine to be associated with statistically more systemic adverse events than placebo (2.28, 1.45 to 3.65 and 20%, 6% to 40%, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Using the adjuvant recombinant subunit vaccine might prevent more cases of herpes zoster than using the live attenuated vaccine, but the adjuvant recombinant subunit vaccine also carries a greater risk of adverse events at injection sites.

PROTOCOL REGISTRATION

Prospero CRD42017056389.

Varicella zoster meningitis: an atypical case of zoster reactivation in immunocompetent young adult

Varicella virus is a neurotropic virus that can reactivate later in life to cause zoster or shingles. Typically, it affects elderly, immunocompromised population. We report an unusual case of an immunocompetent young adult presenting with occipital headache and zoster rash, without preherpetic and postherpetic neuralgia, who was diagnosed with varicella meningitis on Polymerase chain reaction (PCR). He was treated with intravenous acyclovir and later discharged on famciclovir. Diagnosis of varicella meningitis is difficult in the absence of typical features of zoster rash and requires high index of suspicion. Rapid diagnostic tests including varicella PCR and antithecal antibody testing can help in the confirmation of varicella zoster meningitis.

Effect of Repetitive Intracutaneous Injections with Local Anesthetics and Steroids for Acute Thoracic Herpes Zoster and Incidence of Postherpetic Neuralgia

Background

Treatment of established postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is difficult and often disappointing. In this study, we assessed the efficacy of repetitive intracutaneous injections with local anesthetics and steroids in acute thoracic herpes zoster (HZ) pain, herpetic eruption, and incidence of PHN.

Methods

Ninety-three patients with acute thoracic HZ were randomly assigned to receive a standard treatment of antiviral medication with p.o. analgesics or the standard treatment with the addition of repetitive intracutaneous injections of a local anesthetic and steroid mixture. Patients were permitted to take tramadol when the visual analog scale (VAS) ≥ 4. Pain assessment using VAS was conducted at the initial visit, as well as 1, 2, 4, 12, and 24 weeks after the end of the treatments.

Results

In comparison with the standard treatment group, the VAS scores of the intracutaneous injection group were significantly lower during the study. The intracutaneous injection group also reported shorter duration of pain and skin eruption than the control group ( P  = 0.005 vs P  < 0.001, respectively). At 1 month post-therapy, 12.8% patients in the intracutaneous injection group reported zoster-associated pain, compared with 47.8% in the standard treatment group ( P  < 0.001). At 3 and 6 months post-therapy, the incidence of PHN was still significantly lower in the intracutaneous injection group than the standard treatment group. EuroQol VAS scores were significantly higher in the intracutaneous injection group vs standard treatment group (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Repetitive intracutaneous injections with local anesthetics and steroids along with standard treatment significantly reduce the duration of pain and herpetic eruption and incidence of PHN.

Bilateral herpes zoster in a patient with end-stage kidney disease

Herpes zoster (HZ) is caused by the reactivation of a latent varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection within the cranial or dorsal root ganglia. The cutaneous lesions of HZ are typically limited to a single dermatome, while non-contiguous HZ involving two or more dermatomes is a very rare clinical entity. In this report, we describe a case of HZ involving the left and right side of the abdomen corresponding to the T11 dermatome in a 63-year-old man on chronic peritoneal dialysis. The characteristic cutaneous manifestation encouraged us to ascribe the disease to HZ duplex bilateralis, and the patient was given a single dose of oral valacyclovir and achieved a favorable outcome. The therapeutic concerns regarding the reactivation of VZV in patients with end-stage kidney disease are also discussed.

Incidence of herpes zoster amongst adults varies by severity of immunosuppression

OBJECTIVES

We examined the incidence of herpes zoster in immunocompromised adults (≥18 years) with different severities of immunosuppression and assessed the prevalence of complications and of various kinds of healthcare resource utilisation.

METHODS

German claims data from more than ten million adults were used to calculate annual incidence rates of herpes zoster for the years 2006-2012 and to analyse the prevalence of complications, physician visits, hospitalisations, and antiviral and analgesic treatments using a cohort design. The analyses were stratified by age, sex, and severity of immunosuppression, defined by immunocompromising conditions and drug therapies.

RESULTS

The incidence rate per 1000 person-years of herpes zoster was almost twice as high in immunocompromised patients (11.5 (95% confidence interval (CI): 11.4-11.6)) compared to immunocompetent subjects (5.9 (95% CI: 5.8-5.9)). The incidence rate was higher in highly immunocompromised patients (13.4 (95% CI: 13.2-13.6)) than in patients with a low severity of immunosuppression (10.0 (95% CI: 9.8-10.1)). These differences were observed for both sexes and in all age groups. Complications, outpatient physician visits, hospitalisations, and analgesic treatments occurred more frequently in immunocompromised patients as well.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that immunocompromised individuals are affected by the disease in particular and that the burden of herpes zoster is highest in severely immunocompromised patients.

European consensus-based (S2k) Guideline on the Management of Herpes Zoster - guided by the European Dermatology Forum (EDF) in cooperation with the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology (EADV), Part 1: Diagnosis

Herpes zoster (HZ, shingles) is a frequent medical condition which may severely impact the quality of life of affected patients. Different therapeutic approaches to treat acute HZ are available. The aim of this European project was the elaboration of a consensus-based guideline on the management of patients who present with HZ, considering different patient populations and different localizations. This interdisciplinary guideline aims at an improvement of the outcomes of the acute HZ management concerning disease duration, acute pain and quality of life of the affected patients and at a reduction of the incidence of postherpetic neuralgia and other complications. The guideline development followed a structured and predefined process, considering the quality criteria for guidelines development as suggested by the AGREE II instrument. The steering group was responsible for the planning and the organization of the guideline development process (Division of Evidence based Medicine, dEBM). The expert panel was nominated by virtue of clinical expertise and/or scientific experience and included experts from the fields of dermatology, virology/infectiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, neurology and anaesthesiology. Recommendations for clinical practice were formally consented during the consensus conference, explicitly considering different relevant aspects. The guideline was approved by the commissioning societies after an extensive internal and external review process. In this first part of the guideline, diagnostic means have been evaluated. The expert panel formally consented recommendations for the management of patients with (suspected) HZ, referring to the assessment of HZ patients, considering various specific clinical situations. Users of the guideline must carefully check whether the recommendations are appropriate for the context of intended application. In the setting of an international guideline, it is generally important to consider different national approaches and legal circumstances with regard to the regulatory approval, availability and reimbursement of diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.

Valacyclovir versus acyclovir for the treatment of herpes zoster ophthalmicus in immunocompetent patients

BACKGROUND

Herpes zoster ophthalmicus affects the eye and vision, and is caused by the reactivation of the varicella zoster virus in the distribution of the first division of the trigeminal nerve. An aggressive management of acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus with systemic antiviral medication is generally recommended as the standard first-line treatment for herpes zoster ophthalmicus infections. Both acyclovir and its prodrug valacyclovir are medications that are approved for the systemic treatment of herpes zoster. Although it is known that valacyclovir has an improved bioavailability and steadier plasma concentration, it is currently unclear as to whether this leads to better treatment results and less ocular complications.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of valacyclovir versus acyclovir for the systemic antiviral treatment of herpes zoster ophthalmicus in immunocompetent patients.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched CENTRAL (which contains the Cochrane Eyes and Vision Trials Register; 2016, Issue 5), Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid MEDLINE In-Process and Other Non-Indexed Citations, Ovid MEDLINE Daily, Ovid OLDMEDLINE (January 1946 to June 2016), Embase (January 1980 to June 2016), Web of Science Conference Proceedings Citation Index-Science (CPCI-S; January 1990 to June 2016), BIOSIS Previews (January 1969 to June 2016), the ISRCTN registry (www.isrctn.com/editAdvancedSearch), ClinicalTrials.gov (www.clinicaltrials.gov), and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP; www.who.int/ictrp/search/en). We did not use any date or language restrictions in the electronic searches for trials. We last searched the electronic databases on 13 June 2016.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We considered all randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in which systemic valacyclovir was compared to systemic acyclovir medication for treatment of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. There were no language restrictions.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently selected trials, evaluated the risk of bias in included trials, and extracted and analysed data. We did not conduct a meta-analysis, as only one study was included. We assessed the certainty of the evidence for the selected outcomes using the GRADE approach.

MAIN RESULTS

One study fulfilled the inclusion criteria. In this multicentre, randomised double-masked study carried out in France, 110 immunocompetent people with herpes zoster ophthalmicus, diagnosed within 72 hours of skin eruption, were treated, with 56 participants allocated to the valacyclovir group and 54 to the acyclovir group. The study was poorly reported and we judged it to be unclear risk of bias for most domains.Persistent ocular lesions after 6 months were observed in 2/56 people in the valacyclovir group compared with 1/54 people in the acyclovir group (risk ratio (RR) 1.93 (95% CI 0.18 to 20.65); very low certainty evidence. Dendritic ulcer appeared in 3/56 patients treated with valacyclovir, while 1/54 suffered in the acyclovir group (RR 2.89; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.31 to 26.96); very low certainty evidence), uveitis in 7/56 people in the valacyclovir group compared with 9/54 in the acyclovir group (RR 0.96; 95% CI 0.36 to 2.57); very low certainty evidence). Similarly, there was uncertainty as to the comparative effects of these two treatments on post-herpetic pain, and side effects (vomiting, eyelid or facial edema, disseminated zoster). Due to concerns about imprecision (small number of events and large confidence intervals) and study limitations, the certainty of evidence using the GRADE approach was rated as low to very low for the use of valacyclovir compared to acyclovir.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This review included data from only one study, which had methodological limitations. As such, our results indicated uncertainty of the relative benefits and harms of valacyclovir over acyclovir in herpes zoster ophthalmicus, despite its widespread use for this condition. Further well-designed and adequately powered trials are needed. These trials should include outcomes important to patients, including compliance.

Prevention of herpes zoster and its complications: from the clinic to the real-life experience with the vaccine

The erpes zoster is an acute viral illness characterized by a vesicular rash of unilateral distribution, which can eventually cause severe complications, such as post-herpetic neuralgia, ophthalmic zoster, stroke or other neurological complications. In Europe, an incidence of between 2.0 and 4.6 cases per 1000 person-years is estimated, with an increase after 50 years of age. Currently, the therapeutic options for are only partially effective in limiting the acute phase, while the management of complications is frequently complex and not satisfactory. The overall burden of the disease and the elevated costs associated with diagnosis and clinical and therapeutic management led to the development of a new preventive approach through a live attenuated virus vaccine. The vaccine now available decreases the incidence of the disease, post-herpetic neuralgia and the burden of illness. Moreover, the vaccine is safe and well tolerated and it seems to confer long-term protection. Based on the clinical results and evidence provided by the Health Technology Assessment, several countries introduced immunization although with different recommendations and methods of funding.

European consensus-based (S2k) Guideline on the Management of Herpes Zoster - guided by the European Dermatology Forum (EDF) in cooperation with the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology (EADV), Part 2: Treatment

Herpes zoster (HZ, shingles) is a frequent medical condition which may severely impact the quality of life of affected patients. Different therapeutic approaches to treat acute HZ are available. The aim of this European project was the elaboration of a consensus-based guideline on the management of patients who present with HZ, considering different patient populations and different localizations. This interdisciplinary guideline aims at an improvement of the outcomes of the acute HZ management concerning disease duration, acute pain and quality of life of the affected patients and at a reduction in the incidence of postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) and other complications. The guideline development followed a structured and pre-defined process, considering the quality criteria for guidelines development as suggested by the AGREE II instrument. The steering group was responsible for the planning and the organization of the guideline development process (Division of Evidence-Based Medicine, dEBM). The expert panel was nominated by virtue of clinical expertise and/or scientific experience and included experts from the fields of dermatology, virology/infectiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, neurology and anaesthesiology. Recommendations for clinical practice were formally consented during the consensus conference, explicitly considering different relevant aspects. The guideline was approved by the commissioning societies after an extensive internal and external review process. In this second part of the guideline, therapeutic interventions have been evaluated. The expert panel formally consented recommendations for the treatment of patients with HZ (antiviral medication, pain management, local therapy), considering various clinical situations. Users of the guideline must carefully check whether the recommendations are appropriate for the context of intended application. In the setting of an international guideline, it is generally important to consider different national approaches and legal circumstances with regard to the regulatory approval, availability and reimbursement of diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.

A Supraglottic Pseudotumor in an Immunocompromised Patient with Nephrotic Syndrome, Herpes Zoster, and a Cytomegalovirus Infection

Several viral infections may occasionally induce supraglottic mass lesions, resulting in an obstructive airway emergency. We herein report one such case in a 63-year-old male immunocompromised patient with nephrotic syndrome due to membranous nephropathy who also had ophthalmic herpes zoster with a laryngeal mass, which required urgent intubation and mechanical ventilation. The patient was initially treated with acyclovir; however, because a serological analysis revealed a concurrent cytomegalovirus infection, we discontinued the administration of acyclovir and gave priority to the simultaneous treatment of the cytomegalovirus and varicella-zoster virus infections with ganciclovir. The clinical course was favorable, and he was weaned from the ventilator 10 days later when a serial imaging analysis revealed no signs of the supraglottic mass, leading us to conclude that these two viral infections could have additively or synergistically contributed to the development of the local pseudotumor. The diagnostic and therapeutic concerns arising in the current case are also discussed.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of a vaccination program for the prevention of herpes zoster and post-herpetic neuralgia in adults aged 50 and over in Germany

Herpes zoster (HZ; shingles) is a common viral disease that affects the nerves and surrounding skin causing a painful dermatomal rash and leading to debilitating complications such as, mainly, post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN). Currently, there is no effective treatment for HZ and PHN. The objective of this study was to assess the cost-effectiveness of a HZ vaccination program in Germany. An existing Markov Model was adapted to the German healthcare setting to compare a vaccination policy to no vaccination on a lifetime time-horizon, considering 2 scenarios: vaccinating people starting at the age of 50 or at the age of 60 years, from the perspective of the statutory health insurance (SHI) and the societal perspective. According to the perspective, vaccinating 20% of the 60+ German population resulted in 162,713 to 186,732 HZ and 31,657 to 35,793 PHN cases avoided. Corresponding incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER) were 39,306 €/QALY from the SHI perspective and 37,417 €/QALY from a societal perspective. Results for the 50+ German population ranged from 336,468 to 394,575 HZ and from 48,637 to 56,087 PHN cases avoided from the societal perspective. Corresponding ICER were 39,782 €/QALY from a SHI perspective and 32,848 €/QALY from a societal perspective. Sensitivity analyses showed that results are mainly impacted by discount rates, utility values and use of alternative epidemiological data.The model indicated that a HZ vaccination policy in Germany leads to significant public health benefits and could be a cost-effective intervention. The results were robust and consistent with local and international existing literature.

Mandibular osteonecrosis following herpes zoster infection in the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve: a case report and literature review

Herpes zoster virus (HZV) infections are caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus. Reactivation symptoms commonly affect the thoracolumbar trunk, and rarely affect the mandibular branches of the trigeminal nerve. When the mandibular branches are involved, lesions appear proximal to the innervation area. This condition may be associated with exfoliation of the teeth and osteonecrosis of the jawbone. We report a case of mandibular osteomyelitis after herpes zoster infection and we present a review of the literature on mandibular-branch involvement of HZV-related osteonecrosis.

Polish consensus guidelines on the use of acyclovir in the treatment and prevention of VZV and HSV infections

A physician has to perform a benefit-risk assessment each time acyclovir is prescribed "off label" for children. A group of Polish infectious disease experts was created to develop evidence-based guidelines on the use of acyclovir in the treatment and prevention of varicella zoster and herpes simplex infections. In primary varicella zoster virus infections, oral acyclovir treatment is recommended in children over 12 years of age and should be considered in younger children who fall into one of the groups at risk of severe varicella. Intravenous acyclovir therapy in varicella is recommended in patients with immune deficiencies, newborns and in complicated cases. When there is a justified need for prevention of varicella, oral acyclovir prophylaxis may be considered if immunoglobulin cannot be administered, and if it is too late for vaccination. Oral acyclovir treatment of herpes zoster may be beneficial to otherwise healthy patients with a rash in places other than the trunk and in patients over 50 years of age. In immunocompetent patients with herpes simplex infections, indications for treatment with oral acyclovir include primary (genital herpes, skin herpes in children with atopic dermatitis, ocular herpes simplex, severe gingivostomatitis, paronychia and pharyngitis) and recurrent infections. Intravenous acyclovir should be administered for herpes infections in neonates, immunocompromised patients and patients who develop complications including neurological.

Lower Back Pain with Sciatic Disorder Following L5 Dermatome Caused by Herpes Zoster Infection

We report the case of a 62-year-old patient with lower back pain radiating into the right leg accompanied by numbness. The pain had an acute onset and was resistant to conservative pain treatment. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of the lumbar spine showed no degenerative discovertebral lesions, but a swelling of the nerve root supplying the affected dermatome. For pain treatment the patient received lumbar epidural infiltrations. During this treatment the patient suddenly developed a skin rash with grouped vesicular blisters on an erythematous ground. After the diagnosis of a lumbar herpes zoster and an acyclovir treatment, the patient could be discharged in an ameliorated condition. This case demonstrates the importance to consider rare causes of lumbosciatic pain and disorders and to acknowledge unspecific changes in a MRI scan.

Herpes zoster-associated mortality in Europe: a systematic review

Background

Reactivation of latent varicella zoster virus, partly due to age-related immunosenescence and immunosuppressive conditions, results in herpes zoster (HZ) and its associated complications. The management of the most important complication, post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN), is challenging, particularly in the elderly, and is generally unsatisfactory. No previous reviews have reported the incidence of HZ-associated mortality.

Methods

We carried out a systematic literature review to identify studies and databases providing data for HZ-associated mortality in adults aged ≥50 years in Europe.

Results

We identified 12 studies: Belgium (1); France (1); Germany (1); the Netherlands (2); Portugal (1); Spain (4) and England/Wales (2) and 4 databases from Europe: France; Germany and England/Wales. The incidence was available from eight studies; it was highest in those aged ≥95 in France (19.48/100,000). In the European (WHO) database, the overall mortality ranged from 0 to >0.07/100,000. The age- and gender-specific HZ mortality rates from the other databases showed that while in younger age groups the HZ mortality rate was higher in males, in older patients the rate was much higher in women. The case fatality rate was 2 and 61/100 000 in those 45–65 and ≥65 years, respectively. A similar increase with age was seen for the hospital fatality rate; 0.6% in those 45–65 years in the UK and 7.1% in those ≥80 in Spain.

Conclusions

Although the data were sparse and heterogeneous, HZ-associated mortality clearly increases with age. In addition, the elderly who develop HZ often have underlying diseases and are at increased risk of functional decline and loss of independence. Mortality should be taken into account in health-economics models.

Ocular herpes: the pathophysiology, management and treatment of herpetic eye diseases

Herpesviruses are a prominent cause of human viral disease, second only to the cold and influenza viruses. Most herpesvirus infections are mild or asymptomatic. However, when the virus invades the eye, a number of pathologies can develop and its associated sequelae have become a considerable source of ocular morbidity. The most common culprits of herpetic eye disease are the herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella zoster virus (VZV), and cytomegalovirus (CMV). While primary infection can produce ocular disease, the most destructive manifestations tend to arise from recurrent infection. These recurrent infections can wreck devastating effects and lead to irreversible vision loss accompanied by a decreased quality of life, increased healthcare usage, and significant cost burden. Unfortunately, no method currently exists to eradicate herpesviruses from the body after infection. Treatment and management of herpes-related eye conditions continue to revolve around antiviral drugs, although corticosteroids, interferons, and other newer therapies may also be appropriate depending on the disease presentation. Ultimately, the advent of effective vaccines will be crucial to preventing herpesvirus diseases altogether and cutting the incidence of ocular complications.

Herpes zoster ophthalmicus associated with abducens palsy

The extraocular muscle palsies associated with herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) are transient, self-limiting conditions, usually seen in elderly patients. There are different treatment recommendations for paralytic complications, but prognosis has generally reported to be favorable. A 75-year-old male patient presented with diplopia. Clinical history revealed left facial vesicular eruptions and pain treated by oral aciclovir 1 week following symptom onset. On examination, we observed cicatricial lesions with crusts involving left hemiface, a limitation in abduction of the left eye, and a superficial punctuate keratitis (SPK) with decreased visual acuity (4/10). Examination of the right eye was unremarkable. Hess screen test confirmed left six nerve palsy.

Neurodermatology

Since the skin and the central and/or peripheral nervous system share a common source (the ectoderm), numerous genetic and acquired diseases (infectious, tumoral or autoimmune disorders) equally affect both. Neurologic diseases or symptoms such as stroke, cerebral or medullary vascular malformations, peripheral, brain or medullary tumors, epilepsy, ataxia, neurologic infections, or cognitive disorders (dementia, mental retardation) may be associated with specific cutaneous manifestations of which the discovery can facilitate the final diagnosis, thereby leading to specific treatment and/or genetic investigations. Careful examination of the skin, hair, and nails by the neurologist is consequently of the utmost importance; when unusual abnormalities of the skin are discovered or when greater expertise is required, consultation with a dermatologist is frequently advisable.

Atypical Presentation of Herpes Zoster Duplex Bilateralis in a Renal Transplanted Patient

Viral infections in renal transplant patients are an important cause of morbidity and mortality. In most cases, the clinical presentation of herpes zoster allows the diagnosis to be made only by history and physical examination. However, patients who are immunosuppressed may have uncommon presentations, and require a high index of suspicion and additional diagnostic testing for proper management. We report a rare presentation of herpes zoster duplex bilateralis involving symmetrical dermatomes over the lower limbs occurring in a woman with a recent history of renal transplantation. The skin lesions were also atypical representing a diagnostic challenge. This infection should be part of differential diagnosis of cutaneous manifestations in organ transplant recipients.