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Koch TL, Robinson SD, Salcedo PF, Chase K, Biggs J, Fedosov AE, Yandell M, Olivera BM, Safavi-Hemami H. Prey Shifts Drive Venom Evolution in Cone Snails. Mol Biol Evol 2024; 41:msae120. [PMID: 38935574 PMCID: PMC11296725 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msae120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Venom systems are complex traits that have independently emerged multiple times in diverse plant and animal phyla. Within each venomous lineage there typically exists interspecific variation in venom composition where several factors have been proposed as drivers of variation, including phylogeny and diet. Understanding these factors is of broad biological interest and has implications for the development of antivenom therapies and venom-based drug discovery. Because of their high species richness and the presence of several major evolutionary prey shifts, venomous marine cone snails (genus Conus) provide an ideal system to investigate drivers of interspecific venom variation. Here, by analyzing the venom gland expression profiles of ∼3,000 toxin genes from 42 species of cone snail, we elucidate the role of prey-specific selection pressures in shaping venom variation. By analyzing overall venom composition and individual toxin structures, we demonstrate that the shifts from vermivory to piscivory in Conus are complemented by distinct changes in venom composition independent of phylogeny. In vivo injections of venom from piscivorous cone snails in fish further showed a higher potency compared with venom of nonpiscivores demonstrating a selective advantage. Together, our findings provide compelling evidence for the role of prey shifts in directing the venom composition of cone snails and expand our understanding of the mechanisms of venom variation and diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lund Koch
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Samuel D Robinson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | | | - Kevin Chase
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Jason Biggs
- Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, Mangilao, GU 96913, USA
| | - Alexander E Fedosov
- Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Zoology, Stockholm 114 18, Sweden
| | - Mark Yandell
- Department of Human Genetics, Utah Center for Genetic Discovery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Baldomero M Olivera
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Helena Safavi-Hemami
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
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2
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Dashevsky D, Harris RJ, Zdenek CN, Benard-Valle M, Alagón A, Portes-Junior JA, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Grego KF, Sant'Anna SS, Frank N, Fry BG. Red-on-Yellow Queen: Bio-Layer Interferometry Reveals Functional Diversity Within Micrurus Venoms and Toxin Resistance in Prey Species. J Mol Evol 2024; 92:317-328. [PMID: 38814340 PMCID: PMC11168994 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-024-10176-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Snakes in the family Elapidae largely produce venoms rich in three-finger toxins (3FTx) that bind to the α 1 subunit of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), impeding ion channel activity. These neurotoxins immobilize the prey by disrupting muscle contraction. Coral snakes of the genus Micrurus are specialist predators who produce many 3FTx, making them an interesting system for examining the coevolution of these toxins and their targets in prey animals. We used a bio-layer interferometry technique to measure the binding interaction between 15 Micrurus venoms and 12 taxon-specific mimotopes designed to resemble the orthosteric binding region of the muscular nAChR subunit. We found that Micrurus venoms vary greatly in their potency on this assay and that this variation follows phylogenetic patterns rather than previously reported patterns of venom composition. The long-tailed Micrurus tend to have greater binding to nAChR orthosteric sites than their short-tailed relatives and we conclude this is the likely ancestral state. The repeated loss of this activity may be due to the evolution of 3FTx that bind to other regions of the nAChR. We also observed variations in the potency of the venoms depending on the taxon of the target mimotope. Rather than a pattern of prey-specificity, we found that mimotopes modeled after snake nAChRs are less susceptible to Micrurus venoms and that this resistance is partly due to a characteristic tryptophan → serine mutation within the orthosteric site in all snake mimotopes. This resistance may be part of a Red Queen arms race between coral snakes and their prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
| | - Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Cleveland, QLD, 4810, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Celine Frere Group, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Melisa Benard-Valle
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Region Hovedstaden, Denmark
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - José A Portes-Junior
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Anita M Tanaka-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Kathleen F Grego
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Sávio S Sant'Anna
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Nathaniel Frank
- MToxins Venom Lab, 717 Oregon Street, Oshkosh, WI, 54902, USA
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
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Smith CF, Nikolakis ZL, Perry BW, Schield DR, Meik JM, Saviola AJ, Castoe TA, Parker J, Mackessy SP. The best of both worlds? Rattlesnake hybrid zones generate complex combinations of divergent venom phenotypes that retain high toxicity. Biochimie 2023; 213:176-189. [PMID: 37451532 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2023.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Studying the consequences of hybridization between closely related species with divergent traits can reveal patterns of evolution that shape and maintain extreme trophic adaptations. Snake venoms are an excellent model system for examining the evolutionary and ecological patterns that underlie highly selected polymorphic traits. Here we investigate hybrid venom phenotypes that result from natural introgression between two rattlesnake species that express highly divergent venom phenotypes: Crotalus o. concolor and C. v. viridis. Though not yet documented, interbreeding between these species may lead to novel venom phenotypes with unique activities that break the typical trends of venom composition in rattlesnakes. The characteristics of these unusual phenotypes could unveil the roles of introgression in maintaining patterns of venom composition and variation, including the near ubiquitous dichotomy between neurotoxic or degradative venoms observed across rattlesnakes. We use RADseq data to infer patterns of gene flow and hybrid ancestry between these diverged lineages and link these genetic data with analyses of venom composition, biological activity, and whole animal model toxicity tests to understand the impacts of introgression on venom composition. We find that introgressed populations express admixed venom phenotypes that do not sacrifice biological activity (lethal toxicity) or overall abundance of dominant toxins compared to parental venoms. These hybridized venoms therefore do not represent a trade-off in functionality between the typical phenotypic extremes but instead represent a unique combination of characters whose expression appears limited to the hybrid zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara F Smith
- School of Biological Sciences, 501 20th Street, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
| | - Zachary L Nikolakis
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Jesse M Meik
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tarleton State University, 1333 W. Washington Street, Stephenville, TX, 76402, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, 12801 East 17th Avenue, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Joshua Parker
- Fresno City College, 1101 E. University Avenue, Fresno, CA, 93741, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, 501 20th Street, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA.
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4
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Heptinstall TC, Strickland JL, Rosales-Garcia RA, Rautsaw RM, Simpson CL, Nystrom GS, Ellsworth SA, Hogan MP, Borja M, Fernandes Campos P, Grazziotin FG, Rokyta DR, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM, Parkinson CL. Venom phenotype conservation suggests integrated specialization in a lizard-eating snake. Toxicon 2023; 229:107135. [PMID: 37146732 PMCID: PMC11000244 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Biological specialization reduces the size of niche space while increasing efficiency in the use of available resources. Specialization often leads to phenotypic changes via natural selection aligning with niche space constraints. Commonly observed changes are in size, shape, behavior, and traits associated with feeding. One often selected trait for dietary specialization is venom, which, in snakes, often shows variation dependent on diet across and within species. The Neotropical Blunt-headed Treesnake (Imantodes cenchoa) is a highly specialized, rear-fanged, arboreal, lizard hunter that displays a long thin body, enlarged eyes, and a large Duvernoy's gland. However, toxin characterization of I. cenchoa has never been completed. Here, we use RNA-seq and mass spectrometry to assemble, annotate, and analyze the venom gland transcriptomes of four I. cenchoa from across their range. We find a lack of significant venom variation at the sequence and expression levels, suggesting venom conservation across the species. We propose this conservation provides evidence of a specialized venom repertoire, adapted to maximize efficiency of capturing and processing lizards. Importantly, this study provides the most complete venom gland transcriptomes of I. cenchoa and evidence of venom specialization in a rear-fanged snake, giving insight into selective pressures of venom across all snake species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; Department of Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36688, USA
| | | | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA; Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA
| | - Cassandra L Simpson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Gunnar S Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Schyler A Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael P Hogan
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Miguel Borja
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universdad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35070, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | | | - Felipe G Grazziotin
- Laboratório Especial de Colecões Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | | | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
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Smith CF, Nikolakis ZL, Ivey K, Perry BW, Schield DR, Balchan NR, Parker J, Hansen KC, Saviola AJ, Castoe TA, Mackessy SP. Snakes on a plain: biotic and abiotic factors determine venom compositional variation in a wide-ranging generalist rattlesnake. BMC Biol 2023; 21:136. [PMID: 37280596 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01626-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Snake venoms are trophic adaptations that represent an ideal model to examine the evolutionary factors that shape polymorphic traits under strong natural selection. Venom compositional variation is substantial within and among venomous snake species. However, the forces shaping this phenotypic complexity, as well as the potential integrated roles of biotic and abiotic factors, have received little attention. Here, we investigate geographic variation in venom composition in a wide-ranging rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis) and contextualize this variation by investigating dietary, phylogenetic, and environmental variables that covary with venom. RESULTS Using shotgun proteomics, venom biochemical profiling, and lethality assays, we identify 2 distinct divergent phenotypes that characterize major axes of venom variation in this species: a myotoxin-rich phenotype and a snake venom metalloprotease (SVMP)-rich phenotype. We find that dietary availability and temperature-related abiotic factors are correlated with geographic trends in venom composition. CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight the potential for snake venoms to vary extensively within species, for this variation to be driven by biotic and abiotic factors, and for the importance of integrating biotic and abiotic variation for understanding complex trait evolution. Links between venom variation and variation in biotic and abiotic factors indicate that venom variation likely results from substantial geographic variation in selection regimes that determine the efficacy of venom phenotypes across populations and snake species. Our results highlight the cascading influence of abiotic factors on biotic factors that ultimately shape venom phenotype, providing evidence for a central role of local selection as a key driver of venom variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara F Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Zachary L Nikolakis
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Kathleen Ivey
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
- Current address: Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, 1900 Pleasant Street, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Neil R Balchan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
| | - Joshua Parker
- Fresno City College, 1101 E. University Avenue, Fresno, CA, 93741, USA
| | - Kirk C Hansen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Denver, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA.
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6
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Gritti MA, González KY, Tavares FL, Teibler GP, Peichoto ME. Exploring the antibacterial potential of venoms from Argentinian animals. Arch Microbiol 2023; 205:121. [PMID: 36934358 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-023-03465-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/20/2023]
Abstract
The resistance to antimicrobials developed by several bacterial species has become one of the main health problems in recent decades. It has been widely reported that natural products are important sources of antimicrobial compounds. Considering that animal venoms are under-explored in this line of research, in this study, we screened the antibacterial activity of venoms of eight snake and five lepidopteran species from northeastern Argentina. Twofold serial dilutions of venoms were tested by the agar well-diffusion method and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination against seven bacterial strains. We studied the comparative protein profile of the venoms showing antibacterial activity. Only the viperid and elapid venoms showed remarkable dose-dependent antibacterial activity towards most of the strains tested. Bothrops diporus venom showed the lowest MIC values against all the strains, and S. aureus ATCC 25923 was the most sensitive strain for all the active venoms. Micrurus baliocoryphus venom was unable to inhibit the growth of Enterococcus faecalis. Neither colubrid snake nor lepidopteran venoms exhibited activity on any bacterial strain tested. The snake venoms exhibiting antibacterial activity showed distinctive protein profiles by SDS-PAGE, highlighting that we could reveal for the first time the main protein families which may be thought to contribute to the antibacterial activity of M. baliocoryphus venom. This study paves the way to search for new antibacterial agents from Argentinian snake venoms, which may be a further opportunity to give an added value to the local biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaela A Gritti
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tropical (INMeT)-ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G Malbrán", Almafuerte y Ambar s/n, 3370, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina
| | - Karen Y González
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias (FCV), Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (UNNE), Sargento Cabral 2139, 3400, Corrientes, Argentina
| | - Flavio L Tavares
- Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana (UNILA), Av. Tarquínio Joslin dos Santos, nº. 1.000, Jd. Universitário, Foz do Iguaçu, PR, CEP 85870-901, Brazil
| | - Gladys P Teibler
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias (FCV), Universidad Nacional del Nordeste (UNNE), Sargento Cabral 2139, 3400, Corrientes, Argentina
| | - María E Peichoto
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Tropical (INMeT)-ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G Malbrán", Almafuerte y Ambar s/n, 3370, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina.
- Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana (UNILA), Av. Tarquínio Joslin dos Santos, nº. 1.000, Jd. Universitário, Foz do Iguaçu, PR, CEP 85870-901, Brazil.
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7
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van Thiel J, Alonso LL, Slagboom J, Dunstan N, Wouters RM, Modahl CM, Vonk FJ, Jackson TNW, Kool J. Highly Evolvable: Investigating Interspecific and Intraspecific Venom Variation in Taipans ( Oxyuranus spp.) and Brown Snakes ( Pseudonaja spp.). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:74. [PMID: 36668892 PMCID: PMC9864820 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms are complex mixtures of toxins that differ on interspecific (between species) and intraspecific (within species) levels. Whether venom variation within a group of closely related species is explained by the presence, absence and/or relative abundances of venom toxins remains largely unknown. Taipans (Oxyuranus spp.) and brown snakes (Pseudonaja spp.) represent medically relevant species of snakes across the Australasian region and provide an excellent model clade for studying interspecific and intraspecific venom variation. Using liquid chromatography with ultraviolet and mass spectrometry detection, we analyzed a total of 31 venoms covering all species of this monophyletic clade, including widespread localities. Our results reveal major interspecific and intraspecific venom variation in Oxyuranus and Pseudonaja species, partially corresponding with their geographical regions and phylogenetic relationships. This extensive venom variability is generated by a combination of the absence/presence and differential abundance of venom toxins. Our study highlights that venom systems can be highly dynamical on the interspecific and intraspecific levels and underscores that the rapid toxin evolvability potentially causes major impacts on neglected tropical snakebites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jory van Thiel
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Luis L. Alonso
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roel M. Wouters
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Cassandra M. Modahl
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Freek J. Vonk
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Timothy N. W. Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences (AIMMS), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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OUTCOMES OF TREATMENT OF SNAKE AND SCORPION ENVENOMATION IN BIRDS OF PREY, WITH AND WITHOUT ANTIVENOM. J Zoo Wildl Med 2023. [DOI: 10.1638/2021-0124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
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9
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Chandrasekara U, Harris RJ, Fry BG. The Target Selects the Toxin: Specific Amino Acids in Snake-Prey Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors That Are Selectively Bound by King Cobra Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080528. [PMID: 36006190 PMCID: PMC9416539 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom is an adaptive ecological trait that has evolved primarily as a form of prey subjugation. Thus, the selection pressure for toxin diversification is exerted by the prey’s physiological targets, with this pressure being particularly acute for specialist feeders, such as the King Cobra species, all of which are snake-prey specialists. However, while extensive research has been undertaken to elucidate key amino acids that guide toxin structure–activity relationships, reciprocal investigations into the specific sites guiding prey-lineage selective effects have been lacking. This has largely been due to the lack of assay systems amenable to systematic amino acid replacements of targeted proteins in the prey’s physiological pathways. To fill this knowledge gap, we used a recently described approach based upon mimotope peptides corresponding to the orthosteric site of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha-1 subunits, a major binding site for snake venom neurotoxins that cause flaccid paralysis. We investigated the venoms of four different types of King Cobra (Cambodian, Javan, Malaysian, and Thai). This approach allowed for the determination of the key amino acid positions in King Cobra snake prey that are selectively bound by the toxins, whereby replacing these amino acids in the snake-prey orthosteric site with those from lizards or rats resulted in a significantly lower level of binding by the venoms, while conversely replacing the lizard or rat amino acids with those from the snake at that position increased the binding. By doing such, we identified three negatively charged amino acids in the snake orthosteric site that are strongly bound by the positively charged neurotoxic three-finger toxins found in King Cobra venom. This study, thus, sheds light on the selection pressures exerted by a specialist prey item for the evolution of lineage-selective toxins.
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10
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Pharmacological Screening of Venoms from Five Brazilian Micrurus Species on Different Ion Channels. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147714. [PMID: 35887062 PMCID: PMC9318628 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral snake venoms from the Micrurus genus are a natural library of components with multiple targets, yet are poorly explored. In Brazil, 34 Micrurus species are currently described, and just a few have been investigated for their venom activities. Micrurus venoms are composed mainly of phospholipases A2 and three-finger toxins, which are responsible for neuromuscular blockade—the main envenomation outcome in humans. Beyond these two major toxin families, minor components are also important for the global venom activity, including Kunitz-peptides, serine proteases, 5′ nucleotidases, among others. In the present study, we used the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique to explore the crude venom activities of five different Micrurus species from the south and southeast of Brazil: M. altirostris, M. corallinus, M. frontalis, M. carvalhoi and M. decoratus. All five venoms induced full inhibition of the muscle-type α1β1δε nAChR with different levels of reversibility. We found M. altirostris and M. frontalis venoms acting as partial inhibitors of the neuronal-type α7 nAChR with an interesting subsequent potentiation after one washout. We discovered that M. altirostris and M. corallinus venoms modulate the α1β2 GABAAR. Interestingly, the screening on KV1.3 showed that all five Micrurus venoms act as inhibitors, being totally reversible after the washout. Since this activity seems to be conserved among different species, we hypothesized that the Micrurus venoms may rely on potassium channel inhibitory activity as an important feature of their envenomation strategy. Finally, tests on NaV1.2 and NaV1.4 showed that these channels do not seem to be targeted by Micrurus venoms. In summary, the venoms tested are multifunctional, each of them acting on at least two different types of targets.
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11
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Untangling interactions between Bitis vipers and their prey using coagulotoxicity against diverse vertebrate plasmas. Toxicon 2022; 216:37-44. [PMID: 35780972 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Venom is a key evolutionary innovation which plays a primary role in prey subjugation by venomous snakes. However, while there is a growing body of literature indicating the composition and activity of snake venoms is under strong natural selection driven by differences in prey physiology, the majority of studies have historically focussed on the activity of snake venoms with regards only towards human or mammalian physiologies. This study aimed to use clotting assays measuring both time and strength of clotting to characterise the coagulotoxic activity of venoms from a taxonomically, morphologically, and ecologically diverse range of Bitis spp. of viperid snakes upon the plasma of model species: amphibian (Cane Toad, Rhinella marina); lizard (Blue-tongue Skink, Tiliqua scincoides); avian (Domestic Chicken, Gallus gallus); and rodent (Brown Rat, Rattus norvegicus). Significant variation in coagulotoxic activity across the different plasmas was observed between species and compared to the known affects upon human plasma. Bitis caudalis was notable in being active on all four plasmas, but in extremely divergent manners: accelerating clotting times and producing strong, stable clots upon amphibian plasma (consistent with true procoagulation); accelerating clotting time but producing weak, unstable clots upon lizard plasma (consistent with pseudo-procoagulation); delaying avian clotting time beyond machine maximum reading time (strong anticoagulation consistent with either inhibition of clotting enzymes or total destruction of fibrinogen, or both); and delaying clotting of rodent plasma (consistent with inhibition of clotting enzymes) and with only weak clots formed (consistent with destruction of fibrinogen). In contrast, the sister species B. peringueyi and B. schneideri displayed activity only upon the lizard plasma, slightly accelerating the clotting times to produce weak, unstable clots (consistent with pseudo-procoagulation). The other dwarf species, B. cornuta, displayed strong anticoagulation upon avian and rodent plasmas, delaying clotting beyond the machine maximum reading time (strong anticoagulation consistent with either inhibition of clotting enzymes or total destruction of fibrinogen, or both). In contrast, the giant species studied (B. gabonica) showed only a very weak pseudo-procoagulant activity upon lizard plasma. The wide range of variation seen within this study highlights the importance of studying venom activity on relevant models when making conclusions about the ecological role of venoms and the extreme limitation in extrapolating animal results to predict potential human clinical effects.
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12
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Suranse V, Jackson TNW, Sunagar K. Contextual Constraints: Dynamic Evolution of Snake Venom Phospholipase A 2. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14060420. [PMID: 35737081 PMCID: PMC9231074 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14060420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom is a dynamic trait that has contributed to the success of numerous organismal lineages. Predominantly composed of proteins, these complex cocktails are deployed for predation and/or self-defence. Many non-toxic physiological proteins have been convergently and recurrently recruited by venomous animals into their toxin arsenal. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is one such protein and features in the venoms of many organisms across the animal kingdom, including snakes of the families Elapidae and Viperidae. Understanding the evolutionary history of this superfamily would therefore provide insight into the origin and diversification of venom toxins and the evolution of novelty more broadly. The literature is replete with studies that have identified diversifying selection as the sole influence on PLA2 evolution. However, these studies have largely neglected the structural/functional constraints on PLA2s, and the ecology and evolutionary histories of the diverse snake lineages that produce them. By considering these crucial factors and employing evolutionary analyses integrated with a schema for the classification of PLA2s, we uncovered lineage-specific differences in selection regimes. Thus, our work provides novel insights into the evolution of this major snake venom toxin superfamily and underscores the importance of considering the influence of evolutionary and ecological contexts on molecular evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Suranse
- Evolutionary Venomics Laboratory, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India;
| | - Timothy N. W. Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia;
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Laboratory, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +91-080-2293-2895
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13
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Adrião AAX, dos Santos AO, de Lima EJSP, Maciel JB, Paz WHP, da Silva FMA, Pucca MB, Moura-da-Silva AM, Monteiro WM, Sartim MA, Koolen HHF. Plant-Derived Toxin Inhibitors as Potential Candidates to Complement Antivenom Treatment in Snakebite Envenomations. Front Immunol 2022; 13:842576. [PMID: 35615352 PMCID: PMC9126284 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.842576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenomations (SBEs) are a neglected medical condition of global importance that mainly affect the tropical and subtropical regions. Clinical manifestations include pain, edema, hemorrhage, tissue necrosis, and neurotoxic signs, and may evolve to functional loss of the affected limb, acute renal and/or respiratory failure, and even death. The standard treatment for snake envenomations is antivenom, which is produced from the hyperimmunization of animals with snake toxins. The inhibition of the effects of SBEs using natural or synthetic compounds has been suggested as a complementary treatment particularly before admission to hospital for antivenom treatment, since these alternative molecules are also able to inhibit toxins. Biodiversity-derived molecules, namely those extracted from medicinal plants, are promising sources of toxin inhibitors that can minimize the deleterious consequences of SBEs. In this review, we systematically synthesize the literature on plant metabolites that can be used as toxin-inhibiting agents, as well as present the potential mechanisms of action of molecules derived from natural sources. These findings aim to further our understanding of the potential of natural products and provide new lead compounds as auxiliary therapies for SBEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asenate A. X. Adrião
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Aline O. dos Santos
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Emilly J. S. P. de Lima
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Jéssica B. Maciel
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Weider H. P. Paz
- Post Graduate Program in Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Felipe M. A. da Silva
- Post Graduate Program in Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
- Multidisciplinary Support Center, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Manuela B. Pucca
- Medical School, Federal University of Roraima, Boa Vista, Brazil
| | - Ana M. Moura-da-Silva
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Institute Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wuelton M. Monteiro
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Marco A. Sartim
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- University Nilton Lins, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Hector H. F. Koolen
- Post Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Biotechnology BIONORTE, Superior School of Health Sciences, Amazonas State University, Manaus, Brazil
- Post Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, Department of Teaching and Research, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Manaus, Brazil
- Post Graduate Program in Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
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14
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Arroyave-Muñoz A, Meijden AVD, Estrada-Gómez S, García LF. Linking toxicity and predation in a venomous arthropod: the case of Tityus fuhrmanni (Scorpiones: Buthidae), a generalist predator scorpion. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2022; 28:e20210036. [PMID: 35082841 PMCID: PMC8747031 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2021-0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Scorpions are arachnids that have a generalist diet, which use venom to
subdue their prey. The study of their trophic ecology and capture behavior
is still limited compared to other organisms, and aspects such as trophic
specialization in this group have been little explored. Methods: In order to determine the relationship between feeding behavior and venom
toxicity in the scorpion species Tityus fuhrmanni, 33
specimens were offered prey with different morphologies and defense
mechanisms: spiders, cockroaches and crickets. In each of the experiments we
recorded the following aspects: acceptance rate, immobilization time and the
number of capture attempts. The median lethal dose of T.
fuhrmanni venom against the three different types of prey was
also evaluated. Results: We found that this species does not have a marked difference in acceptance
for any of the evaluated prey, but the number of capture attempts of spiders
is higher when compared to the other types of prey. The immobilization time
is shorter in spiders compared to other prey and the LD50 was
higher for cockroaches. Conclusions: These results indicate that T. fuhrmanni is a scorpion with
a generalist diet, has a venom with a different potency among prey and is
capable of discriminating between prey types and employing distinct
strategies to subdue them.
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15
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Malhotra A, Wüster W, Owens JB, Hodges CW, Jesudasan A, Ch G, Kartik A, Christopher P, Louies J, Naik H, Santra V, Kuttalam SR, Attre S, Sasa M, Bravo-Vega C, Murray KA. Promoting co-existence between humans and venomous snakes through increasing the herpetological knowledge base. Toxicon X 2021; 12:100081. [PMID: 34522881 PMCID: PMC8426276 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite incidence at least partly depends on the biology of the snakes involved. However, studies of snake biology have been largely neglected in favour of anthropic factors, with the exception of taxonomy, which has been recognised for some decades to affect the design of antivenoms. Despite this, within-species venom variation and the unpredictability of the correlation with antivenom cross-reactivity has continued to be problematic. Meanwhile, other aspects of snake biology, including behaviour, spatial ecology and activity patterns, distribution, and population demography, which can contribute to snakebite mitigation and prevention, remain underfunded and understudied. Here, we review the literature relevant to these aspects of snakebite and illustrate how demographic, spatial, and behavioural studies can improve our understanding of why snakebites occur and provide evidence for prevention strategies. We identify the large gaps that remain to be filled and urge that, in the future, data and relevant metadata be shared openly via public data repositories so that studies can be properly replicated and data used in future meta-analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Malhotra
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution @ Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, 3rd floor ECW, Deiniol Road, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution @ Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, 3rd floor ECW, Deiniol Road, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
| | - John Benjamin Owens
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution @ Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, 3rd floor ECW, Deiniol Road, Bangor, LL57 2UW, UK
- Captive & Field Herpetology Ltd, Wales, 13 Hirfron, Holyhead, Llaingoch, Anglesey, LL65 1YU, UK
| | - Cameron Wesley Hodges
- School of Biology, Institute of Science, Suranaree University of Technology, Muang Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
| | - Allwin Jesudasan
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Gnaneswar Ch
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ajay Kartik
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Peter Christopher
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Centre for Herpetology, Post bag No.4, Vadanamelli Village, East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Hiral Naik
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. P. O. Wits, 2050, Gauteng, South Africa
- Save the Snakes, R527, Blyderus, Hoedspruit, 1380, South Africa
| | - Vishal Santra
- Captive & Field Herpetology Ltd, Wales, 13 Hirfron, Holyhead, Llaingoch, Anglesey, LL65 1YU, UK
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul, Hooghly, West Bengal 712407, India
| | - Sourish Rajagopalan Kuttalam
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul, Hooghly, West Bengal 712407, India
| | - Shaleen Attre
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and Conservation, Marlowe Building, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NR, UK
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Carlos Bravo-Vega
- Research Group in Mathematical and Computational Biology (BIOMAC), Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of the Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Kris A. Murray
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, UK
- MRC Unit The Gambia at London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, Gambia
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16
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Grego KF, Rocha MMT, Morais-Zani K, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Sant'Anna SS. Length, weight, and longevity record for Micrurus frontalis (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854). BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 83:e251764. [PMID: 34669809 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.251764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- K F Grego
- Instituto Butantan, Laboratório de Herpetologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - M M T Rocha
- Instituto Butantan, Laboratório de Herpetologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - K Morais-Zani
- Instituto Butantan, Laboratório de Herpetologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | | | - S S Sant'Anna
- Instituto Butantan, Laboratório de Herpetologia, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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17
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Calvete JJ, Lomonte B, Saviola AJ, Bonilla F, Sasa M, Williams DJ, Undheim EA, Sunagar K, Jackson TN. Mutual enlightenment: A toolbox of concepts and methods for integrating evolutionary and clinical toxinology via snake venomics and the contextual stance. Toxicon X 2021; 9-10:100070. [PMID: 34195606 PMCID: PMC8234350 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that may claim over 100,000 human lives annually worldwide. Snakebite occurs as the result of an interaction between a human and a snake that elicits either a defensive response from the snake or, more rarely, a feeding response as the result of mistaken identity. Snakebite envenoming is therefore a biological and, more specifically, an ecological problem. Snake venom itself is often described as a "cocktail", as it is a heterogenous mixture of molecules including the toxins (which are typically proteinaceous) responsible for the pathophysiological consequences of envenoming. The primary function of venom in snake ecology is pre-subjugation, with defensive deployment of the secretion typically considered a secondary function. The particular composition of any given venom cocktail is shaped by evolutionary forces that include phylogenetic constraints associated with the snake's lineage and adaptive responses to the snake's ecological context, including the taxa it preys upon and by which it is predated upon. In the present article, we describe how conceptual frameworks from ecology and evolutionary biology can enter into a mutually enlightening relationship with clinical toxinology by enabling the consideration of snakebite envenoming from an "ecological stance". We detail the insights that may emerge from such a perspective and highlight the ways in which the high-fidelity descriptive knowledge emerging from applications of -omics era technologies - "venomics" and "antivenomics" - can combine with evolutionary explanations to deliver a detailed understanding of this multifactorial health crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J. Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Unidad de Proteómica, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Anthony J. Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Fabián Bonilla
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Museo de Zoología, Centro de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Ecología Tropical, Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
| | | | - Eivind A.B. Undheim
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Timothy N.W. Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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18
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Mouchbahani-Constance S, Sharif-Naeini R. Proteomic and Transcriptomic Techniques to Decipher the Molecular Evolution of Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:154. [PMID: 33669432 PMCID: PMC7920473 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nature's library of venoms is a vast and untapped resource that has the potential of becoming the source of a wide variety of new drugs and therapeutics. The discovery of these valuable molecules, hidden in diverse collections of different venoms, requires highly specific genetic and proteomic sequencing techniques. These have been used to sequence a variety of venom glands from species ranging from snakes to scorpions, and some marine species. In addition to identifying toxin sequences, these techniques have paved the way for identifying various novel evolutionary links between species that were previously thought to be unrelated. Furthermore, proteomics-based techniques have allowed researchers to discover how specific toxins have evolved within related species, and in the context of environmental pressures. These techniques allow groups to discover novel proteins, identify mutations of interest, and discover new ways to modify toxins for biomimetic purposes and for the development of new therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reza Sharif-Naeini
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, Alan Edwards Center for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada;
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19
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Development and Cross-Amplification of Microsatellite Markers for Micrurus surinamensis (Elapidae). J HERPETOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1670/19-081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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20
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Dashevsky D, Rokyta D, Frank N, Nouwens A, Fry BG. Electric Blue: Molecular Evolution of Three-Finger Toxins in the Long-Glanded Coral Snake Species Calliophis bivirgatus. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:124. [PMID: 33567660 PMCID: PMC7915963 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Calliophis is the most basal branch of the family Elapidae and several species in it have developed highly elongated venom glands. Recent research has shown that C. bivirgatus has evolved a seemingly unique toxin (calliotoxin) that produces spastic paralysis in their prey by acting on the voltage-gated sodium (NaV) channels. We assembled a transcriptome from C. bivirgatus to investigate the molecular characteristics of these toxins and the venom as a whole. We find strong confirmation that this genus produces the classic elapid eight-cysteine three-finger toxins, that δδ-elapitoxins (toxins that resemble calliotoxin) are responsible for a substantial portion of the venom composition, and that these toxins form a distinct clade within a larger, more diverse clade of C. bivirgatus three-finger toxins. This broader clade of C. bivirgatus toxins also contains the previously named maticotoxins and is somewhat closely related to cytotoxins from other elapids. However, the toxins from this clade that have been characterized are not themselves cytotoxic. No other toxins show clear relationships to toxins of known function from other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Darin Rokyta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 24105, USA;
| | - Nathaniel Frank
- MToxins Venom Lab, 717 Oregon Street, Oshkosh, WI 54902, USA;
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
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21
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Anti-5'-Nucleotidases (5'-ND) and Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Activities of Medicinal Plants to Combat Echis carinatus Venom-Induced Toxicities. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:6631042. [PMID: 33614782 PMCID: PMC7878093 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6631042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Echis carinatus is one of the highly venomous snakes of Pakistan that is responsible for numerous cases of envenomation and deaths. In Pakistan, medicinal plants are commonly used traditionally for snakebite treatment because of their low cost and easy availability in comparison with antivenom. The current research is aimed at evaluating the inhibitory activity of Pakistani medicinal plants against acetylcholinesterase and 5′-nucleotidases present in Echis carinatus venom. Acetylcholinesterase and 5′-nucleotidase enzymatic assays were performed at different venom concentrations to check the activity of these enzymes. Methanolic extracts from different parts of plants were used for in vitro determination of their inhibitory activity against 5′-nucleotidases in snake venom. Active methanolic extracts were subsequently fractioned using different solvents, and these fractions were also assessed for their anti-5′-nucleotidase activity. Results of this study exhibited that Eugenia jambolana Willd. ex O. Berg, Rubia cordifolia L., Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br., Calotropis procera (Wild.) R. Br., Curcuma longa L., and Fagonia arabica L. were able to significantly (p > 0.5) neutralize the 5′-nucleotidase activity by 88%, 86%, 86%, 85%, 83.7%, and 83%, respectively, compared with a standard antidote (snake venom antiserum). Thus, this study indicates that these plants possess the potential to neutralize one of the toxic enzymatic components of Echis carinatus venom and hence can help to augment the future efforts of developing alternative therapy for the management of snakebites.
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22
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Gorson J, Fassio G, Lau ES, Holford M. Diet Diversity in Carnivorous Terebrid Snails Is Tied to the Presence and Absence of a Venom Gland. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020108. [PMID: 33540609 PMCID: PMC7912948 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions are thought to play a driving role in animal evolution, especially for groups that have developed venom as their predatory strategy. However, how the diet of venomous animals influences the composition of venom arsenals remains uncertain. Two prevailing hypotheses to explain the relationship between diet and venom composition focus on prey preference and the types of compounds in venom, and a positive correlation between dietary breadth and the number of compounds in venom. Here, we examined venom complexity, phylogenetic relationship, collection depth, and biogeography of the Terebridae (auger snails) to determine if repeated innovations in terebrid foregut anatomy and venom composition correspond to diet variation. We performed the first molecular study of the diet of terebrid marine snails by metabarcoding the gut content of 71 terebrid specimens from 17 species. Our results suggest that the presence or absence of a venom gland is strongly correlated with dietary breadth. Specifically, terebrid species without a venom gland displayed greater diversity in their diet. Additionally, we propose a revision of the definition of venom complexity in conoidean snails to more accurately capture the breadth of ecological influences. These findings suggest that prey diet is an important factor in terebrid venom evolution and diversification and further investigations of other understudied organisms, like terebrids, are needed to develop robust hypotheses in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Gorson
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Graduate Programs in Biology, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, The American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY 11549, USA
| | - Giulia Fassio
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Department of Biology and Biotechnologies “Charles Darwin”, Sapienza University of Rome, I-00185 Rome, Italy
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms (BEOM), Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, I-00198 Rome, Italy
| | - Emily S. Lau
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Mandë Holford
- Department of Chemistry, Hunter College Belfer Research Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA; (J.G.); (G.F.); (E.S.L.)
- Graduate Programs in Biology, Biochemistry, Chemistry, Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, The American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
- Correspondence:
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Assessing the Binding of Venoms from Aquatic Elapids to the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Orthosteric Site of Different Prey Models. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197377. [PMID: 33036249 PMCID: PMC7583753 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolution of an aquatic lifestyle from land dwelling venomous elapids is a radical ecological modification, bringing about many evolutionary changes from morphology to diet. Diet is an important ecological facet which can play a key role in regulating functional traits such as venom composition and prey-specific targeting of venom. In addition to predating upon novel prey (e.g., fish, fish eggs and invertebrates), the venoms of aquatic elapids also face the challenge of increased prey-escape potential in the aquatic environment. Thus, despite the independent radiation into an aquatic niche on four separate occasions, the venoms of aquatic elapids are evolving under convergent selection pressures. Utilising a biolayer interferometry binding assay, this study set out to elucidate whether crude venoms from representative aquatic elapids were target-specific to the orthosteric site of postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor mimotopes of fish compared to other terrestrial prey types. Representatives of the four aquatic lineages were: aquatic coral snakes representative was Micrurus surinamensis;, sea kraits representative was Laticauda colubrina; sea snakes representatives were two Aipysurus spp. and eight Hydrophis spp; and water cobras representative was Naja annulata. No prey-specific differences in crude venom binding were observed from any species tested, except for Aipysurus laevis, which showed slight evidence of prey-potency differences. For Hydrophis caerulescens, H. peronii, H. schistosus and M. surinamensis, there was a lack of binding to the orthosteric site of any target lineage. Subsequent testing on the in vitro chick-biventer cervicis muscle preparation suggested that, while the venoms of these species bound postsynaptically, they bound to allosteric sites rather than orthosteric. Allosteric binding is potentially a weaker but faster-acting form of neurotoxicity and we hypothesise that the switch to allosteric binding is likely due to selection pressures related to prey-escape potential. This research has potentially opened up the possibility of a new functional class of toxins which have never been assessed previously while shedding light on the selection pressures shaping venom evolution.
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Bolívar-Barbosa JA, Rodríguez-Vargas AL. Actividad neurotóxica del veneno de serpientes del género Micrurus y métodos para su análisis. Revisión de la literatura. REVISTA DE LA FACULTAD DE MEDICINA 2020. [DOI: 10.15446/revfacmed.v68n3.75992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Introducción. Las serpientes del género Micrurus son animales de hábitos fosoriales, de temperamento pasivo y escasa producción de un potente veneno con características neurotóxicas que bloquean la transmisión sináptica en la placa neuromuscular.Objetivo. Presentar un panorama general de la neurotoxicidad del veneno de las serpientes Micrurus y su caracterización funcional mediante métodos de análisis ex vivo.Materiales y métodos. Se realizó una revisión de la literatura en MedLine y ScienceDirect usando términos específicos y sus combinaciones. Estrategia de búsqueda: tipo de estudios: artículos sobre la neurotoxicidad del veneno de serpientes Micrurus y técnicas para determinar su actividad neurotóxica mediante modelos in vitro, in vivo y ex vivo; periodo de publicación: sin limite inicial a junio de 2018; idiomas: inglés y español.Resultados. De los 88 estudios identificados en la búsqueda inicial, se excluyeron 28 por no cumplir los criterios de inclusión (basándose en la lectura de títulos y resúmenes); además, se incluyeron 8 documentos adicionales (libros e informes), que, a criterio de los autores, complementaban la información reportada por las referencias seleccionadas. Los estudios incluidos en la revisión (n=68) correspondieron a las siguientes tipologías: investigaciones originales (n=44), artículos de revisión (n=16) y capítulos de libros, informes, guías y consultas en internet (n=8).Conclusiones. Los estudios que describen el uso de preparaciones ex vivo de músculo y nervio para evaluar el efecto de neurotoxinas ofrecen un buen modelo para la caracterización del efecto presináptico y postsináptico del veneno producido por las serpientes Micrurus.
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Casewell NR, Jackson TNW, Laustsen AH, Sunagar K. Causes and Consequences of Snake Venom Variation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2020; 41:570-581. [PMID: 32564899 PMCID: PMC7116101 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2020.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are mixtures of toxins that vary extensively between and within snake species. This variability has serious consequences for the management of the world’s 1.8 million annual snakebite victims. Advances in ‘omic’ technologies have empowered toxinologists to comprehensively characterize snake venom compositions, unravel the molecular mechanisms that underpin venom variation, and elucidate the ensuing functional consequences. In this review, we describe how such mechanistic processes have resulted in suites of toxin isoforms that cause diverse pathologies in human snakebite victims and we detail how variation in venom composition can result in treatment failure. Finally, we outline current therapeutic approaches designed to circumvent venom variation and deliver next-generation treatments for the world’s most lethal neglected tropical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK.
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Laboratory, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
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Harris RJ, Zdenek CN, Harrich D, Frank N, Fry BG. An Appetite for Destruction: Detecting Prey-Selective Binding of α-Neurotoxins in the Venom of Afro-Asian Elapids. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12030205. [PMID: 32210072 PMCID: PMC7150784 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Prey-selective venoms and toxins have been documented across only a few species of snakes. The lack of research in this area has been due to the absence of suitably flexible testing platforms. In order to test more species for prey specificity of their venom, we used an innovative taxonomically flexible, high-throughput biolayer interferometry approach to ascertain the relative binding of 29 α-neurotoxic venoms from African and Asian elapid representatives (26 Naja spp., Aspidelaps scutatus, Elapsoidea boulengeri, and four locales of Ophiophagus hannah) to the alpha-1 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor orthosteric (active) site for amphibian, lizard, snake, bird, and rodent targets. Our results detected prey-selective, intraspecific, and geographical differences of α-neurotoxic binding. The results also suggest that crude venom that shows prey selectivity is likely driven by the proportions of prey-specific α-neurotoxins with differential selectivity within the crude venom. Our results also suggest that since the α-neurotoxic prey targeting does not always account for the full dietary breadth of a species, other toxin classes with a different pathophysiological function likely play an equally important role in prey immobilisation of the crude venom depending on the prey type envenomated. The use of this innovative and taxonomically flexible diverse assay in functional venom testing can be key in attempting to understanding the evolution and ecology of α-neurotoxic snake venoms, as well as opening up biochemical and pharmacological avenues to explore other venom effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J. Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (R.J.H.); (C.N.Z.)
| | - Christina N. Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (R.J.H.); (C.N.Z.)
| | - David Harrich
- QIMR Berghofer, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, QLD 4029, Australia;
| | | | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; (R.J.H.); (C.N.Z.)
- Correspondence:
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Fangs for the Memories? A Survey of Pain in Snakebite Patients Does Not Support a Strong Role for Defense in the Evolution of Snake Venom Composition. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12030201. [PMID: 32235759 PMCID: PMC7150919 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals use venoms for multiple purposes, most prominently for prey acquisition and self-defense. In snakes, venom composition often evolves as a result of selection for optimization for local diet. However, whether selection for a defensive function has also played a role in driving the evolution of venom composition has remained largely unstudied. Here, we use an online survey of snakebite victims to test a key prediction of a defensive function, that envenoming should result in the rapid onset of severe pain. From the analysis of 584 snakebite reports, involving 192 species of venomous snake, we find that the vast majority of bites do not result in severe early pain. Phylogenetic comparative analysis shows that where early pain after a bite evolves, it is often lost rapidly. Our results, therefore, do not support the hypothesis that natural selection for antipredator defense played an important role in the origin of venom or front-fanged delivery systems in general, although there may be intriguing exceptions to this rule.
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28
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Bourke LA, Youngman NJ, Zdenek CN, Op den Brouw B, Violette A, Fourmy R, Fry BG. Trimeresurus albolabris snakebite treatment implications arising from ontogenetic venom comparisons of anticoagulant function, and antivenom efficacy. Toxicol Lett 2020; 327:2-8. [PMID: 32199952 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Does the venom of Trimeresurus albolabris (white-lipped pit viper) differ between neonate and adults? This species is responsible for most snakebites within south and southeast Asia, yet it is unknown whether ontogenetic variation in venom composition occurs in this species, or how this might affect antivenom efficacy. Using a coagulation analyser robot, we examined the anticoagulant activity of T. albolabris venom from eight individuals across multiple age classes. We then compared the efficacy of Thai Red Cross Green Pit Viper Antivenom across these age classes. Venoms from all age classes were equally potent in their pseudo-procoagulant, fibrinogenolytic activity, in that fibrinogen was cleaved to form weak, unstable fibrin clots that rapidly broke down, thus resulting in a net anticoagulant state. Similarly, this coagulotoxic activity was well neutralised by antivenom across all venoms. Given that coagulotoxicity is the primary serious pathology in T. albolabris envenomations, we conclude that Thai Red Cross Green Tree Pit Viper Antivenom is a valid treatment for envenomations by this species, regardless of age or sex of the offending snake. These results are relevant for clinical treatment of envenomations by T. albolabris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lachlan A Bourke
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Nicholas J Youngman
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Bianca Op den Brouw
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Aude Violette
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911, Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium
| | - Rudy Fourmy
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911, Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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Lyons K, Dugon MM, Healy K. Diet Breadth Mediates the Prey Specificity of Venom Potency in Snakes. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12020074. [PMID: 31979380 PMCID: PMC7076792 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms are best known for their ability to incapacitate prey. In predatory groups, venom potency is predicted to reflect ecological and evolutionary drivers relating to diet. While venoms have been found to have preyspecific potencies, the role of diet breadth on venom potencies has yet to be tested at large macroecological scales. Here, using a comparative analysis of 100 snake species, we show that the evolution of prey-specific venom potencies is contingent on the breadth of a species' diet. We find that while snake venom is more potent when tested on species closely related to natural prey items, we only find this prey-specific pattern in species with taxonomically narrow diets. While we find that the taxonomic diversity of a snakes' diet mediates the prey specificity of its venom, the species richness of its diet was not found to affect these prey-specific potency patterns. This indicates that the physiological diversity of a species' diet is an important driver of the evolution of generalist venom potencies. These findings suggest that the venoms of species with taxonomically diverse diets may be better suited to incapacitating novel prey species and hence play an important role for species within changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Lyons
- Correspondence: (K.L.); (K.H.); Tel.: +353-91-493744 (K.H.)
| | | | - Kevin Healy
- Correspondence: (K.L.); (K.H.); Tel.: +353-91-493744 (K.H.)
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Beyond the 'big four': Venom profiling of the medically important yet neglected Indian snakes reveals disturbing antivenom deficiencies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007899. [PMID: 31805055 PMCID: PMC6894822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Snakebite in India causes the highest annual rates of death (46,000) and disability (140,000) than any other country. Antivenom is the mainstay treatment of snakebite, whose manufacturing protocols, in essence, have remained unchanged for over a century. In India, a polyvalent antivenom is produced for the treatment of envenomations from the so called ‘big four’ snakes: the spectacled cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), and saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus). In addition to the ‘big four’, India is abode to many other species of venomous snakes that have the potential to inflict severe clinical or, even, lethal envenomations in their human bite victims. Unfortunately, specific antivenoms are not produced against these species and, instead, the ‘big four’ antivenom is routinely used for the treatment. Methods We characterized the venom compositions, biochemical and pharmacological activities and toxicity profiles (mouse model) of the major neglected yet medically important Indian snakes (E. c. sochureki, B. sindanus, B. fasciatus, and two populations of N. kaouthia) and their closest ‘big four’ congeners. By performing WHO recommended in vitro and in vivo preclinical assays, we evaluated the efficiencies of the commercially marketed Indian antivenoms in recognizing venoms and neutralizing envenomations by these neglected species. Findings As a consequence of dissimilar ecologies and diet, the medically important snakes investigated exhibited dramatic inter- and intraspecific differences in their venom profiles. Currently marketed antivenoms were found to exhibit poor dose efficacy and venom recognition potential against the ‘neglected many’. Premium Serums antivenom failed to neutralise bites from many of the neglected species and one of the ‘big four’ snakes (North Indian population of B. caeruleus). Conclusions This study unravels disturbing deficiencies in dose efficacy and neutralisation capabilities of the currently marketed Indian antivenoms, and emphasises the pressing need to develop region-specific snakebite therapy for the ‘neglected many’. Snakebite is a ‘neglected tropical disease’ that majorly affects the rural populations in developing countries. India bears the brunt of snakebites with over 46,000 deaths and 140,000 disabilities, annually. A significant number of these bites are attributed to the widely distributed ‘big four’ snakes, namely spectacled cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), and saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus). The commercial antivenoms marketed in India are only manufactured against these four species, while neglecting many other medically relevant snakes with restricted geographic distribution. Snakebite pathology is dependent on the venom composition of the population/species, which can, in turn, vary intra- and inter-specifically. Though this variation severely limits the cross-population/species antivenom efficacy, envenomations by the neglected snakes in India are treated with the ‘big four’ antivenom. Therefore, to unravel the underlying venom variability, we investigated venom proteomic, biochemical/pharmacological and toxicity profiles of the major neglected Indian snakes and their ‘big four’ relatives. To assess the effectiveness of the ‘big four’ antivenom in treating bites from these neglected snakes, we performed preclinical experiments, which revealed alarming inadequacies of the commercial antivenoms. Our findings accentuate the compelling necessity for the innovation of highly efficacious next-generation snakebite therapy in India.
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Michálek O, Kuhn-Nentwig L, Pekár S. High Specific Efficiency of Venom of Two Prey-Specialized Spiders. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E687. [PMID: 31771158 PMCID: PMC6950493 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11120687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The venom of predators should be under strong selection pressure because it is a costly substance and prey may potentially become resistant. Particularly in prey-specialized predators, venom should be selected for its high efficiency against the focal prey. Very effective venom paralysis has been observed in specialized predators, such as spiders preying on dangerous prey. Here, we compared the toxicity of the venoms of two prey-specialized species, araneophagous Palpimanus sp. and myrmecophagous Zodarion nitidum, and their related generalist species. We injected different venom concentrations into two prey types-the prey preferred by a specialist and an alternative prey-and observed the mortality and the paralysis of the prey within 24 h. We found that the venoms of specialists were far more potent towards the preferred prey than alternative prey. The venoms of generalists were similarly potent towards both prey types. In addition, we tested the efficacy of two venom fractions (smaller and larger than 10 kDa) in araneophagous Palpimanus sp. Compounds larger than 10 kDa paralyzed both prey types, but smaller compounds (<10 kDa) were effective only on preferred prey, suggesting the presence of prey-specific compounds in the latter fraction. Our results confirm that prey-specialized spiders possess highly specific venom that allows them to subdue dangerous prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lucia Kuhn-Nentwig
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 6, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland;
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic
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Ullah A, Ullah K, Ali H, Betzel C, Ur Rehman S. The Sequence and a Three-Dimensional Structural Analysis Reveal Substrate Specificity Among Snake Venom Phosphodiesterases. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E625. [PMID: 31661911 PMCID: PMC6891707 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background. Snake venom phosphodiesterases (SVPDEs) are among the least studied venom enzymes. In envenomation, they display various pathological effects, including induction of hypotension, inhibition of platelet aggregation, edema, and paralysis. Until now, there have been no 3D structural studies of these enzymes, thereby preventing structure-function analysis. To enable such investigations, the present work describes the model-based structural and functional characterization of a phosphodiesterase from Crotalusadamanteus venom, named PDE_Ca. (2) Methods. The PDE_Ca structure model was produced and validated using various software (model building: I-TESSER, MODELLER 9v19, Swiss-Model, and validation tools: PROCHECK, ERRAT, Molecular Dynamic Simulation, and Verif3D). (3) Results. The proposed model of the enzyme indicates that the 3D structure of PDE_Ca comprises four domains, a somatomedin B domain, a somatomedin B-like domain, an ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase domain, and a DNA/RNA non-specific domain. Sequence and structural analyses suggest that differences in length and composition among homologous snake venom sequences may account for their differences in substrate specificity. Other properties that may influence substrate specificity are the average volume and depth of the active site cavity. (4) Conclusion. Sequence comparisons indicate that SVPDEs exhibit high sequence identity but comparatively low identity with mammalian and bacterial PDEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwar Ullah
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Park Road, Tarlai Kalan, Islamabad 45550, Pakistan.
| | - Kifayat Ullah
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Park Road, Tarlai Kalan, Islamabad 45550, Pakistan.
| | - Hamid Ali
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Park Road, Tarlai Kalan, Islamabad 45550, Pakistan.
| | - Christian Betzel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Laboratory for Structural Biology of Infection and Inflammation, c/o DESY. Build. 22a, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Shafiq Ur Rehman
- Department of Botany, University of Okara, Okara, Punjab 56300, Pakistan.
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Spider Venom: Components, Modes of Action, and Novel Strategies in Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analyses. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11100611. [PMID: 31652611 PMCID: PMC6832493 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11100611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This review gives an overview on the development of research on spider venoms with a focus on structure and function of venom components and techniques of analysis. Major venom component groups are small molecular mass compounds, antimicrobial (also called cytolytic, or cationic) peptides (only in some spider families), cysteine-rich (neurotoxic) peptides, and enzymes and proteins. Cysteine-rich peptides are reviewed with respect to various structural motifs, their targets (ion channels, membrane receptors), nomenclature, and molecular binding. We further describe the latest findings concerning the maturation of antimicrobial, and cysteine-rich peptides that are in most known cases expressed as propeptide-containing precursors. Today, venom research, increasingly employs transcriptomic and mass spectrometric techniques. Pros and cons of venom gland transcriptome analysis with Sanger, 454, and Illumina sequencing are discussed and an overview on so far published transcriptome studies is given. In this respect, we also discuss the only recently described cross contamination arising from multiplexing in Illumina sequencing and its possible impacts on venom studies. High throughput mass spectrometric analysis of venom proteomes (bottom-up, top-down) are reviewed.
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Jackson TNW, Jouanne H, Vidal N. Snake Venom in Context: Neglected Clades and Concepts. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
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da Silva AM, da Fonseca WL, de Araujo Valente Neto E, Bisneto PF, Contreras-Bernal J, Sachett J, Monteiro WM, Bernarde PS. Envenomation by Micrurus annellatus bolivianus (Peters, 1871) coral snake in the western Brazilian Amazon. Toxicon 2019; 166:34-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Sanz L, de Freitas-Lima LN, Quesada-Bernat S, Graça-de-Souza VK, Soares AM, Calderón LDA, Calvete JJ, Caldeira CA. Comparative venomics of Brazilian coral snakes: Micrurus frontalis, Micrurus spixii spixii, and Micrurus surinamensis. Toxicon 2019; 166:39-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Modahl CM, Mackessy SP. Venoms of Rear-Fanged Snakes: New Proteins and Novel Activities. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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Castillo-Beltrán MC, Hurtado-Gómez JP, Corredor-Espinel V, Ruiz-Gómez FJ. A polyvalent coral snake antivenom with broad neutralization capacity. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007250. [PMID: 30856180 PMCID: PMC6428337 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Coral snakes of the genus Micrurus have a high diversity and wide distribution in the Americas. Despite envenomings by these animals being uncommon, accidents are often severe and may result in death. Producing an antivenom to treat these envenomings has been challenging since coral snakes are difficult to catch, produce small amounts of venom, and the antivenoms produced have shown limited cross neutralization. Here we present data of cross neutralization among monovalent antivenoms raised against M. dumerilii, M. isozonus, M. mipartitus and M. surinamensis and the development of a new polyvalent coral snake antivenom, resulting from the mix of monovalent antivenoms. Our results, show that this coral snake antivenom has high neutralizing potency and wide taxonomic coverage, constituting a possible alternative for a long sought Pan-American coral snake antivenom.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Carlina Castillo-Beltrán
- Grupo de Investigación en Animales Ponzoñosos y sus Venenos, Grupo de Producción y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Dirección de Producción, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Juan Pablo Hurtado-Gómez
- Grupo de Investigación en Animales Ponzoñosos y sus Venenos, Grupo de Producción y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Dirección de Producción, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Vladimir Corredor-Espinel
- Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Francisco Javier Ruiz-Gómez
- Grupo de Investigación en Animales Ponzoñosos y sus Venenos, Grupo de Producción y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Dirección de Producción, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
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Aird SD, Arora J, Barua A, Qiu L, Terada K, Mikheyev AS. Population Genomic Analysis of a Pitviper Reveals Microevolutionary Forces Underlying Venom Chemistry. Genome Biol Evol 2018; 9:2640-2649. [PMID: 29048530 PMCID: PMC5737360 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evx199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms are among the most biologically active secretions known, and are commonly believed to evolve under extreme positive selection. Many venom gene families, however, have undergone duplication, and are often deployed in doses vastly exceeding the LD50 for most prey species, which should reduce the strength of positive selection. Here, we contrast these selective regimes using snake venoms, which consist of rapidly evolving protein formulations. Though decades of extensive studies have found that snake venom proteins are subject to strong positive selection, the greater action of drift has been hypothesized, but never tested. Using a combination of de novo genome sequencing, population genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics, we compare the two modes of evolution in the pitviper, Protobothrops mucrosquamatus. By partitioning selective constraints and adaptive evolution in a McDonald–Kreitman-type framework, we find support for both hypotheses: venom proteins indeed experience both stronger positive selection, and lower selective constraint than other genes in the genome. Furthermore, the strength of selection may be modulated by expression level, with more abundant proteins experiencing weaker selective constraint, leading to the accumulation of more deleterious mutations. These findings show that snake venoms evolve by a combination of adaptive and neutral mechanisms, both of which explain their extraordinarily high rates of molecular evolution. In addition to positive selection, which optimizes efficacy of the venom in the short term, relaxed selective constraints for deleterious mutations can lead to more rapid turnover of individual proteins, and potentially to exploration of a larger venom phenotypic space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven D Aird
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Jigyasa Arora
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Agneesh Barua
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Lijun Qiu
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Kouki Terada
- Okinawa Prefectural Institute of Health and the Environment, Biology and Ecology Group, Nanjo-shi, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Alexander S Mikheyev
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
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Strauch MA, Souza GJ, Pereira JN, Ramos TDS, Cesar MO, Tomaz MA, Monteiro-Machado M, Patrão-Neto FC, Melo PA. True or false coral snake: is it worth the risk? A Micrurus corallinus case report. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2018; 24:10. [PMID: 29651298 PMCID: PMC5894131 DOI: 10.1186/s40409-018-0148-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Bites provoked by the genus Micrurus represent less than 1% of snakebite cases notified in Brazil, a tiny fraction compared with other genus such as Bothrops and Crotalus, which together represent almost 80% of accidents. In addition to their less aggressive behavior, habits and morphology of coral snakes are determinant factors for such low incidence of accidents. Although Micrurus bites are rare, victims must be rescued and hospitalized in a short period of time, because this type of envenoming may evolve to a progressive muscle weakness and acute respiratory failure. Case Presentation We report an accident caused by Micrurus corallinus involving a 28-year-old Caucasian sailor man bitten on the hand. The accident occurred in a recreational camp because people believed the snake was not venomous. The victim presented neurological symptoms 2 h after the accident and was taken to the hospital, where he received antielapidic serum 10 h after the bite. After the antivenom treatment, the patient presented clinical evolution without complications and was discharged 4 days later. Conclusions We reinforce that it is essential to have a health care structure suitable for the treatment of snakebite. Besides, the manipulation of these animals should only be carried out by a team of well-equipped and trained professionals, and even so with special attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Abrahão Strauch
- Vital Brazil Institute, Niterói, RJ Brazil.,2Laboratory of Pharmacology of Toxins, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Guilherme Jones Souza
- Vital Brazil Institute, Niterói, RJ Brazil.,4Postgraduate Program in Teaching of Science, Environment and Society, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | | | | | - Marcelo Oliveira Cesar
- Vital Brazil Institute, Niterói, RJ Brazil.,2Laboratory of Pharmacology of Toxins, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Marcelo Amorim Tomaz
- 2Laboratory of Pharmacology of Toxins, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Marcos Monteiro-Machado
- 2Laboratory of Pharmacology of Toxins, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Fernando Chagas Patrão-Neto
- 2Laboratory of Pharmacology of Toxins, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
| | - Paulo A Melo
- 2Laboratory of Pharmacology of Toxins, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Brazil
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41
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Dobson J, Yang DC, Op den Brouw B, Cochran C, Huynh T, Kurrupu S, Sánchez EE, Massey DJ, Baumann K, Jackson TNW, Nouwens A, Josh P, Neri-Castro E, Alagón A, Hodgson WC, Fry BG. Rattling the border wall: Pathophysiological implications of functional and proteomic venom variation between Mexican and US subspecies of the desert rattlesnake Crotalus scutulatus. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 205:62-69. [PMID: 29074260 PMCID: PMC5825281 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
While some US populations of the Mohave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) are infamous for being potently neurotoxic, the Mexican subspecies C. s. salvini (Huamantlan rattlesnake) has been largely unstudied beyond crude lethality testing upon mice. In this study we show that at least some populations of this snake are as potently neurotoxic as its northern cousin. Testing of the Mexican antivenom Antivipmyn showed a complete lack of neutralisation for the neurotoxic effects of C. s. salvini venom, while the neurotoxic effects of the US subspecies C. s. scutulatus were time-delayed but ultimately not eliminated. These results document unrecognised potent neurological effects of a Mexican snake and highlight the medical importance of this subspecies, a finding augmented by the ineffectiveness of the Antivipmyn antivenom. These results also influence our understanding of the venom evolution of Crotalus scutulatus, suggesting that neurotoxicity is the ancestral feature of this species, with the US populations which lack neurotoxicity being derived states.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Daryl C Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bianca Op den Brouw
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Tam Huynh
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Sanjaya Kurrupu
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, 1295 N Martin Room B308, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; Banner University Medical Center, 1501 N. Campbell Ave, Tucson, AZ 85745, USA
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Peter Josh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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42
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Ancient Diversification of Three-Finger Toxins in Micrurus Coral Snakes. J Mol Evol 2018; 86:58-67. [PMID: 29379986 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-017-9825-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Coral snakes, most notably the genus Micrurus, are the only terrestrial elapid snakes in the Americas. Elapid venoms are generally known for their potent neurotoxicity which is usually caused by Three-Finger Toxin (3FTx) proteins. These toxins can have a wide array of functions that have been characterized from the venom of other elapids. We examined publicly available sequences from Micrurus 3FTx to show that they belong to 8 monophyletic clades that diverged as deep in the 3FTx phylogenetic tree as the other clades with characterized functions. Functional residues from previously characterized clades of 3FTx are not well conserved in most of the Micrurus toxin clades. We also analyzed the patterns of selection on these toxins and find that they have been diversifying at different rates, with some having undergone extreme diversifying selection. This suggests that Micrurus 3FTx may contain a previously underappreciated functional diversity that has implications for the clinical outcomes of bite victims, the evolution and ecology of the genus, as well as the potential for biodiscovery efforts focusing on these toxins.
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43
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Silva FM, Prudente ALDC, Machado FA, Santos MM, Zaher H, Hingst-Zaher E. Aquatic adaptations in a Neotropical coral snake: A study of morphological convergence. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/jzs.12202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Magalhães Silva
- Programa de Pós graduação em Zoologia; Universidade Federal do Pará/Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi; Belém Pará Brazil
- Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi; Belém Pará Brazil
| | | | - Fabio Andrade Machado
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia”; Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires; Buenos Aires Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires; Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Marina Meireles Santos
- Programa de Pós graduação em Zoologia; Universidade Federal do Pará/Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi; Belém Pará Brazil
- Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi; Belém Pará Brazil
| | - Hussam Zaher
- Museu de Zoologia; Universidade de São Paulo; São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
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44
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Saviola AJ, Gandara AJ, Bryson RW, Mackessy SP. Venom phenotypes of the Rock Rattlesnake ( Crotalus lepidus ) and the Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake ( Crotalus willardi ) from México and the United States. Toxicon 2017; 138:119-129. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 07/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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45
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Lister C, Arbuckle K, Jackson TNW, Debono J, Zdenek CN, Dashevsky D, Dunstan N, Allen L, Hay C, Bush B, Gillett A, Fry BG. Catch a tiger snake by its tail: Differential toxicity, co-factor dependence and antivenom efficacy in a procoagulant clade of Australian venomous snakes. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 202:39-54. [PMID: 28757215 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A paradigm of venom research is adaptive evolution of toxins as part of a predator-prey chemical arms race. This study examined differential co-factor dependence, variations relative to dietary preference, and the impact upon relative neutralisation by antivenom of the procoagulant toxins in the venoms of a clade of Australian snakes. All genera were characterised by venoms rich in factor Xa which act upon endogenous prothrombin. Examination of toxin sequences revealed an extraordinary level of conservation, which indicates that adaptive evolution is not a feature of this toxin type. Consistent with this, the venoms did not display differences on the plasma of different taxa. Examination of the prothrombin target revealed endogenous blood proteins are under extreme negative selection pressure for diversification, this in turn puts a strong negative selection pressure upon the toxins as sequence diversification could result in a drift away from the target. Thus this study reveals that adaptive evolution is not a consistent feature in toxin evolution in cases where the target is under negative selection pressure for diversification. Consistent with this high level of toxin conservation, the antivenom showed extremely high-levels of cross-reactivity. There was however a strong statistical correlation between relative degree of phospholipid-dependence and clotting time, with the least dependent venoms producing faster clotting times than the other venoms even in the presence of phospholipid. The results of this study are not only of interest to evolutionary and ecological disciplines, but also have implications for clinical toxinology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum Lister
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2, 8PP, UK
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | | | | | - Chris Hay
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Brian Bush
- Snakes Harmful & Harmless, 9 Birch Place, Stoneville, WA 6081, Australia
| | - Amber Gillett
- Fauna Vet Wildlife Veterinary Consultancy, Beerwah, QLD, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.
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A Review and Database of Snake Venom Proteomes. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9090290. [PMID: 28927001 PMCID: PMC5618223 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9090290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in the last decade combining transcriptomics with established proteomics methods have made possible rapid identification and quantification of protein families in snake venoms. Although over 100 studies have been published, the value of this information is increased when it is collated, allowing rapid assimilation and evaluation of evolutionary trends, geographical variation, and possible medical implications. This review brings together all compositional studies of snake venom proteomes published in the last decade. Compositional studies were identified for 132 snake species: 42 from 360 (12%) Elapidae (elapids), 20 from 101 (20%) Viperinae (true vipers), 65 from 239 (27%) Crotalinae (pit vipers), and five species of non-front-fanged snakes. Approximately 90% of their total venom composition consisted of eight protein families for elapids, 11 protein families for viperines and ten protein families for crotalines. There were four dominant protein families: phospholipase A2s (the most common across all front-fanged snakes), metalloproteases, serine proteases and three-finger toxins. There were six secondary protein families: cysteine-rich secretory proteins, l-amino acid oxidases, kunitz peptides, C-type lectins/snaclecs, disintegrins and natriuretic peptides. Elapid venoms contained mostly three-finger toxins and phospholipase A2s and viper venoms metalloproteases, phospholipase A2s and serine proteases. Although 63 protein families were identified, more than half were present in <5% of snake species studied and always in low abundance. The importance of these minor component proteins remains unknown.
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47
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Aird SD, da Silva NJ, Qiu L, Villar-Briones A, Saddi VA, Pires de Campos Telles M, Grau ML, Mikheyev AS. Coralsnake Venomics: Analyses of Venom Gland Transcriptomes and Proteomes of Six Brazilian Taxa. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E187. [PMID: 28594382 PMCID: PMC5488037 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9060187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom gland transcriptomes and proteomes of six Micrurus taxa (M. corallinus, M. lemniscatus carvalhoi, M. lemniscatus lemniscatus, M. paraensis, M. spixii spixii, and M. surinamensis) were investigated, providing the most comprehensive, quantitative data on Micrurus venom composition to date, and more than tripling the number of Micrurus venom protein sequences previously available. The six venomes differ dramatically. All are dominated by 2-6 toxin classes that account for 91-99% of the toxin transcripts. The M. s. spixii venome is compositionally the simplest. In it, three-finger toxins (3FTxs) and phospholipases A₂ (PLA₂s) comprise >99% of the toxin transcripts, which include only four additional toxin families at levels ≥0.1%. Micrurus l. lemniscatus venom is the most complex, with at least 17 toxin families. However, in each venome, multiple structural subclasses of 3FTXs and PLA₂s are present. These almost certainly differ in pharmacology as well. All venoms also contain phospholipase B and vascular endothelial growth factors. Minor components (0.1-2.0%) are found in all venoms except that of M. s. spixii. Other toxin families are present in all six venoms at trace levels (<0.005%). Minor and trace venom components differ in each venom. Numerous novel toxin chemistries include 3FTxs with previously unknown 8- and 10-cysteine arrangements, resulting in new 3D structures and target specificities. 9-cysteine toxins raise the possibility of covalent, homodimeric 3FTxs or heterodimeric toxins with unknown pharmacologies. Probable muscarinic sequences may be reptile-specific homologs that promote hypotension via vascular mAChRs. The first complete sequences are presented for 3FTxs putatively responsible for liberating glutamate from rat brain synaptosomes. Micrurus C-type lectin-like proteins may have 6-9 cysteine residues and may be monomers, or homo- or heterodimers of unknown pharmacology. Novel KSPIs, 3× longer than any seen previously, appear to have arisen in three species by gene duplication and fusion. Four species have transcripts homologous to the nociceptive toxin, (MitTx) α-subunit, but all six species had homologs to the β-subunit. The first non-neurotoxic, non-catalytic elapid phospholipase A₂s are reported. All are probably myonecrotic. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the six taxa diverged 15-35 million years ago and that they split from their last common ancestor with Old World elapines nearly 55 million years ago. Given their early diversification, many cryptic micrurine taxa are anticipated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven D Aird
- Division of Faculty Affairs, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan.
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan.
| | - Nelson Jorge da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais e Saúde, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás 74605-140, Brazil.
| | - Lijun Qiu
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan.
| | - Alejandro Villar-Briones
- Research Support Division, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan.
| | - Vera Aparecida Saddi
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais e Saúde, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás 74605-140, Brazil.
- Laboratório de Oncogenética e Radiobiologia da Associação de Combate ao Câncer em Goiás, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Rua 239 no. 52-Setor Universitário, Goiânia, Goiás 74065-070, Brazil.
| | - Mariana Pires de Campos Telles
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais e Saúde, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás 74605-140, Brazil.
- Laboratório de Genética & Biodiversidade, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás 74690-900, Brazil.
| | - Miguel L Grau
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan.
| | - Alexander S Mikheyev
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken 904-0495, Japan.
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Oliveira FDR, Noronha MDDN, Lozano JLL. Biological and molecular properties of yellow venom of the Amazonian coral snake Micrurus surinamensis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2017; 50:365-373. [DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0408-2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Smiley-Walters SA, Farrell TM, Gibbs HL. Evaluating local adaptation of a complex phenotype: reciprocal tests of pigmy rattlesnake venoms on treefrog prey. Oecologia 2017; 184:739-748. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-017-3882-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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50
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Boldrini-França J, Cologna CT, Pucca MB, Bordon KDCF, Amorim FG, Anjolette FAP, Cordeiro FA, Wiezel GA, Cerni FA, Pinheiro-Junior EL, Shibao PYT, Ferreira IG, de Oliveira IS, Cardoso IA, Arantes EC. Minor snake venom proteins: Structure, function and potential applications. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017; 1861:824-838. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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