Marine pharmacology in 1999: compounds with antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, antiprotozoal and antiviral activities affecting the cardiovascular, endocrine, immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action

Marine Pharmacology in 2019-2021: Marine Compounds with Antibacterial, Antidiabetic, Antifungal, Anti-Inflammatory, Antiprotozoal, Antituberculosis and Antiviral Activities; Affecting the Immune and Nervous Systems, and Other Miscellaneous Mechanisms of Action

The current 2019-2021 marine pharmacology literature review provides a continuation of previous reviews covering the period 1998 to 2018. Preclinical marine pharmacology research during 2019-2021 was published by researchers in 42 countries and contributed novel mechanism-of-action pharmacology for 171 structurally characterized marine compounds. The peer-reviewed marine natural product pharmacology literature reported antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral mechanism-of-action studies for 49 compounds, 87 compounds with antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory activities that also affected the immune and nervous system, while another group of 51 compounds demonstrated novel miscellaneous mechanisms of action, which upon further investigation, may contribute to several pharmacological classes. Thus, in 2019-2021, a very active preclinical marine natural product pharmacology pipeline provided novel mechanisms of action as well as new lead chemistry for the clinical marine pharmaceutical pipeline targeting the therapy of several disease categories.

Evaluation of Phytochemical Screening, Pigment Content, In Vitro Antioxidant, Antibacterial Potential and GC-MS Metabolite Profiling of Green Seaweed Caulerpa racemosa

Exploration of seaweeds to unravel their bioactive metabolites from the perspective of wider applications gained substantial importance. The present study was performed to investigate the total phenolic, flavonoid, tannin content, antioxidant activity and antibacterial potential of various solvent extracts of green seaweed Caulerpa racemosa. The methanolic extract showed higher phenolic (11.99 ± 0.48 mg gallic acid equivalents/g), tannin (18.59 ± 0.54 mg tannic acid equivalents/g) and flavonoid (33.17 ± 0.76 mg quercetin equivalents/g) content than other extracts. Antioxidant activity was determined by using 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assay with different concentrations of C. racemosa extracts. The methanolic extract showed higher scavenging potential in both the DPPH and ABTS activity with the inhibition value of 54.21 ± 1.39% and 76.62 ± 1.08%, respectively. Bioactive profiling was also identified by using Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) techniques. These studies revealed the presence of valuable bioactive compounds in C. racemosa extracts and these compounds might be responsible for antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer and anti-mutagenic properties. Major compounds identified in GC-MS were 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, 3-hexadecene and Phthalic acid. In terms of antibacterial activity, C. racemosa has promising antibacterial potential against aquatic pathogens Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas veronii and Aeromonas salmonicida. Further evaluation studies focusing aquatic related aspects would reveal the novel bioproperties and applications of C. racemosa.

Marine Natural Products from the Russian Pacific as Sources of Drugs for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are growing to become one of humanity's biggest health problems, given the number of individuals affected by them. They cause enough mortalities and severe economic impact to rival cancers and infections. With the current diversity of pathophysiological mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative diseases, on the one hand, and scarcity of efficient prevention and treatment strategies, on the other, all possible sources for novel drug discovery must be employed. Marine pharmacology represents a relatively uncharted territory to seek promising compounds, despite the enormous chemodiversity it offers. The current work discusses one vast marine region-the Northwestern or Russian Pacific-as the treasure chest for marine-based drug discovery targeting neurodegenerative diseases. We overview the natural products of neurological properties already discovered from its waters and survey the existing molecular and cellular targets for pharmacological modulation of the disease. We further provide a general assessment of the drug discovery potential of the Russian Pacific in case of its systematic development to tackle neurodegenerative diseases.

In Vitro and In Vivo Anticancer and Genotoxicity Profiles of Green Synthesized and Chemically Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles

Silver nanoparticles were green synthesized (Ag-PTs) employing the crude extract of Padina tetrastromatica, a marine alga, and their anticancer and safety profile were compared with those of chemically synthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) by in vitro and in vivo models. Ag-PT exhibited potent cytotoxicity against B16-F10 (IC₅₀ = 3.29), MCF-7 (IC₅₀ = 4.36), HEPG2 (IC₅₀ =3.89), and HeLa (IC₅₀ = 4.97) cancer cell lines, whereas they exhibited lower toxicity on normal CHO-K1 cells (IC₅₀ = 5.16). The potent anticancer activity of Ag-PTs on cancer cells is due to the liberation of ions from the nanoparticles. Increased ion internalization to the cells promotes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and ultimately leads to cell death. The in vitro anticancer results and in vivo melanoma tumor regression study showed significant inhibition of melanoma tumor growth due to Ag-PT treatment. Ag-PT is involved in the upregulation of the p53 protein and downregulation of Sox-2 along with the Ki-67 protein. The antitumor effects of Ag-PTs may be due to the additional release of ions at a lower pH of the tumor microenvironment than that of the normal tissue. The results of safety investigations of Ag-PT by studying mitotic chromosome aberrations (CAs), micronucleus (MN) induction, and mitotic index (MI) demonstrated Ag-PT to be less genotoxic compared to Ag-NP. The bioefficacy and toxicology outcomes together demonstrated that the green synthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag-PTs) could be explored to develop a biocompatible, therapeutic agent and a vehicle of drug delivery for various biomedical applications.

Future Directions for the Discovery of Natural Product-Derived Immunomodulating Drugs

Drug discovery from natural sources is going through a renaissance, having spent many decades in the shadow of synthetic molecule drug discovery, despite the fact that natural product-derived compounds occupy a much greater chemical space than those created through synthetic chemistry methods. With this new era comes new possibilities, not least the novel targets that have emerged in recent times and the development of state-of-the-art technologies that can be applied to drug discovery from natural sources. Although progress has been made with some immunomodulating drugs, there remains a pressing need for new agents that can be used to treat the wide variety of conditions that arise from disruption, or over-activation, of the immune system; natural products may therefore be key in filling this gap. Recognising that, at present, there is no authoritative article that details the current state-of-the-art of the immunomodulatory activity of natural products, this in-depth review has arisen from a joint effort between the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Natural Products and Immunopharmacology, with contributions from a Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation number of world-leading researchers in the field of natural product drug discovery, to provide a "position statement" on what natural products has to offer in the search for new immunomodulatory argents. To this end, we provide a historical look at previous discoveries of naturally occurring immunomodulators, present a picture of the current status of the field and provide insight into the future opportunities and challenges for the discovery of new drugs to treat immune-related diseases.

Fascaplysin derivatives binding to DNA via unique cationic five-ring coplanar backbone showed potent antimicrobial/antibiofilm activity against MRSA in vitro and in vivo

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is considered as one of the most dangerous clinical pathogens. Biofilms forming ability of MRSA is also a major cause of drug resistance. Hence, it is in urgent need to develop novel antibacterial/antibiofilm drugs. Fascaplysin with a unique cationic five-ring coplanar backbone is emerging as a potential antibacterial compound. In this study, aiming at developing novel and more effective agents, a series of fascaplysin derivatives and their corresponding β-carboline precursors have been synthesized. Then their antibacterial/antibiofilm activity and mechanisms against MRSA were investigated for the first time. The results showed that most fascaplysins rather than β-carboline precursors exhibit superior antimicrobial activity against MRSA ATCC43300, demonstrating the important role of cationic five-ring coplanar backbone playing in antibacterial activity. Among them, 14 and 18 are the most potent compounds with MIC value of 0.098 μg/ml (10-fold lower than vancomycin), and 18 featuring the lowest toxicity. Subsequent mechanisms exploration indicates that 18 has relatively stronger ability to destroy bacterial cell wall and membrane, higher binding affinity to bacterial genomic DNA. Molecular docking study revealed that besides the key role of cationic five-ring coplanar backbone, introduction of N-aryl amide at 9-position of fascaplysin promoted the combination of compound 18 and DNA via additional π-π stacking and hydrogen bonding of the naphthyl group. Moreover, fascaplysins could inhibit MRSA biofilm formation in vitro and bacterial infection in vivo. All these results illustrate that fascaplysin derivative 18 is a strong and safe multi-target antibacterial agent, which makes it an attractive candidate for the treatment of MRSA and its biofilm infections.

Marine Natural Products: Promising Candidates in the Modulation of Gut-Brain Axis towards Neuroprotection

In recent decades, several neuroprotective agents have been provided in combating neuronal dysfunctions; however, no effective treatment has been found towards the complete eradication of neurodegenerative diseases. From the pathophysiological point of view, growing studies are indicating a bidirectional relationship between gut and brain termed gut-brain axis in the context of health/disease. Revealing the gut-brain axis has survived new hopes in the prevention, management, and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Accordingly, introducing novel alternative therapies in regulating the gut-brain axis seems to be an emerging concept to pave the road in fighting neurodegenerative diseases. Growing studies have developed marine-derived natural products as hopeful candidates in a simultaneous targeting of gut-brain dysregulated mediators towards neuroprotection. Of marine natural products, carotenoids (e.g., fucoxanthin, and astaxanthin), phytosterols (e.g., fucosterol), polysaccharides (e.g., fucoidan, chitosan, alginate, and laminarin), macrolactins (e.g., macrolactin A), diterpenes (e.g., lobocrasol, excavatolide B, and crassumol E) and sesquiterpenes (e.g., zonarol) have shown to be promising candidates in modulating gut-brain axis. The aforementioned marine natural products are potential regulators of inflammatory, apoptotic, and oxidative stress mediators towards a bidirectional regulation of the gut-brain axis. The present study aims at describing the gut-brain axis, the importance of gut microbiota in neurological diseases, as well as the modulatory role of marine natural products towards neuroprotection.

Marine Pharmacology in 2016-2017: Marine Compounds with Antibacterial, Antidiabetic, Antifungal, Anti-Inflammatory, Antiprotozoal, Antituberculosis and Antiviral Activities; Affecting the Immune and Nervous Systems, and Other Miscellaneous Mechanisms of Action

The review of the 2016-2017 marine pharmacology literature was prepared in a manner similar as the 10 prior reviews of this series. Preclinical marine pharmacology research during 2016-2017 assessed 313 marine compounds with novel pharmacology reported by a growing number of investigators from 54 countries. The peer-reviewed literature reported antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities for 123 marine natural products, 111 marine compounds with antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory activities as well as affecting the immune and nervous system, while in contrast 79 marine compounds displayed miscellaneous mechanisms of action which upon further investigation may contribute to several pharmacological classes. Therefore, in 2016-2017, the preclinical marine natural product pharmacology pipeline generated both novel pharmacology as well as potentially new lead compounds for the growing clinical marine pharmaceutical pipeline, and thus sustained with its contributions the global research for novel and effective therapeutic strategies for multiple disease categories.

The methanol extract of red algae, Dichotomaria obtusata, from Persian Gulf promotes in vitro osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; a biological and phytochemical study

OBJECTIVES

Osteoporosis is a major public health problem that is appeared with increasing age. This study evaluated the effect of the algae Dichotomaria obtusata methanol extract on osteogenic differentiation of the cultured bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) in vitro and analyzed the algae methanol extract to find out the potent beneficial components.

METHODS

Dichotomaria obtusata were collected from the coastal area of Bushehr City in the Persian Gulf, Iran. The expression of osteogenesis-related genes was examined using real-time PCR. The formation of calcium deposits in differentiated MSCs was examined by Alizarin R staining. Analyses of algae extract ingredients were performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

KEY FINDINGS

Methanol extract of the algae caused the up-regulation of osteogenic genes that were significant for Osteopontin and Osteocalcin (P < 0.05) and also led to an increase in calcium deposits and matrix mineralization in BMMSCs. The GC-MS analyses of the algae extracts resulted in the identification of steroids and essential fatty acids.

CONCLUSION

The results of the study indicated that the methanol extract of D. obtusata may possess significant potentials for the prevention of osteoporosis in vitro.

Are Bioactive Molecules from Seaweeds a Novel and Challenging Option for the Prevention of HPV Infection and Cervical Cancer Therapy?-A Review

Cervical cancer represents one of the leading causes of cancer-related death in women all over the world. The infection with human papilloma virus (HPV) is one of the major risk factors for the development of premalignant lesions, which will progress to cervical cancer. Seaweeds are marine organisms with increased contents of bioactive compounds, which are described as potential anti-HPV and anti-cervical cancer agents. Our study aims to bring together all the results of the previous studies, conducted in order to highlight the potency of bioactive molecules from seaweeds, as anti-HPV and anti-cervical agents. This paper is a review of the English literature published between January 2010 and August 2020. We performed a systematic study in the Google Academic and PubMed databases using the key words "HPV infection", "anticancer", "seaweeds", "cervical cancer" and "carcinogenesis process", aiming to evaluate the effects of different bioactive molecules from marine algae on cervical cancer cell lines and on HPV-infected cells. Only original studies were considered for our research. None of the papers was excluded due to language usage or affiliation. Recent discoveries pointed out that sulfated polysaccharides, such as dextran sulfate heparan or cellulose sulfate, blocked the ability of HPV to infect cells, and inhibited the carcinogenesis process. Carrageenans inhibited the virions of HPV from binding the cellular wall. Fucoidan induced the growth inhibition of HeLa cervical cells in vitro. Heterofucans exhibited antiproliferative effects on cancer cell lines. Terpenoids from brown algae are also promising agents with anti-cervical cancer activity. Considering all the results of the previous studies, we observed that great amounts of bioactive molecules from seaweeds could treat both unapparent HPV infection and clinical visible disease. Furthermore, these molecules were very efficient in the treatment of invasive cervical carcinomas. In these conditions, we consider seaweeds extracts as a novel and challenging therapeutic strategy, and we hope that our study paves the way for further clinical trials in the field.

Marine Pharmacology in 2014-2015: Marine Compounds with Antibacterial, Antidiabetic, Antifungal, Anti-Inflammatory, Antiprotozoal, Antituberculosis, Antiviral, and Anthelmintic Activities; Affecting the Immune and Nervous Systems, and Other Miscellaneous Mechanisms of Action

The systematic review of the marine pharmacology literature from 2014 to 2015 was completed in a manner consistent with the 1998-2013 reviews of this series. Research in marine pharmacology during 2014-2015, which was reported by investigators in 43 countries, described novel findings on the preclinical pharmacology of 301 marine compounds. These observations included antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, antiviral, and anthelmintic pharmacological activities for 133 marine natural products, 85 marine compounds with antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities, as well as those that affected the immune and nervous system, and 83 marine compounds that displayed miscellaneous mechanisms of action, and may probably contribute to novel pharmacological classes upon further research. Thus, in 2014-2015, the preclinical marine natural product pharmacology pipeline provided novel pharmacology as well as new lead compounds for the clinical marine pharmaceutical pipeline, and thus continued to contribute to ongoing global research for alternative therapeutic approaches to many disease categories.

Identification of Fromiamycalin and Halaminol A from Australian Marine Sponge Extracts with Anthelmintic Activity against Haemonchus contortus

There is an urgent need to discover and develop new anthelmintics for the treatment of parasitic nematodes of veterinary importance to circumvent challenges linked to drug resistant parasites. Being one of the most diverse natural ecosystems, the marine environment represents a rich resource of novel chemical entities. This study investigated 2000 extracts from marine invertebrates, collected from Australian waters, for anthelmintic activity. Using a well-established in vitro bioassay, these extracts were screened for nematocidal activity against Haemonchus contortus — a socioeconomically important parasitic nematode of livestock animals. Extracts (designated Mu-1, Ha-1 and Ha-2) from two marine sponges (Monanchora unguiculata and Haliclona sp.) each significantly affected larvae of H. contortus. Individual extracts displayed a dose-dependent inhibition of both the motility of exsheathed third-stage larvae (xL3s) and the development of xL3s to fourth-stage larvae (L4s). Active fractions in each of the three extracts were identified using bioassay-guided fractionation. From the active fractions from Monanchora unguiculata, a known pentacyclic guanidine alkaloid, fromiamycalin (1), was purified. This alkaloid was shown to be a moderately potent inhibitor of L4 development (half-maximum inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) = 26.6 ± 0.74 µM) and L4 motility (IC₅₀ = 39.4 ± 4.83 µM), although it had a relatively low potency at inhibiting of xL3 motility (IC₅₀ ≥ 100 µM). Investigation of the active fractions from the two Haliclona collections led to identification of a mixture of amino alcohol lipids, and, subsequently, a known natural product halaminol A (5). Anthelmintic profiling showed that 5 had limited potency at inhibiting larval development and motility. These data indicate that fromiamycalin, other related pentacyclic guanidine alkaloids and/or halaminols could have potential as anthelmintics following future medicinal chemistry efforts.

Spatial Distribution of Collections Yielding Marine Natural Products

The societal benefits of coral reef ecosystems include shoreline protection, habitat provision for reef fish, tourism, and recreation. Rarely considered in valuation of reefs is the considerable contribution of marine natural products (MNPs) to both human health and the economy. To better understand the relation of MNP discovery with the characteristics and condition of coral reef ecosystems, we initiated a study to track the collection location and taxonomic identity of organisms that have provided pharmacological products. We reviewed collection information and associated data from 298 pharmacological products originating from marine biota during the past 47 years. The products were developed from 232 different marine species representing 15 phyla, and the 1296 collections of these specimens occurred across 69 countries and seven continents. Our evaluation of the collection data was hampered by sundry observational and reporting issues, including imprecise location descriptions and omission of collection dates. Nonetheless, the study provides an important synopsis and appraisal of years of study and exploration by the marine natural product community. Understanding and quantifying the benefits of MNP discovery will depend upon improved reporting of collections, including accurate taxonomic identification, collection dates, and locations.

Investigation of the Anti-Prostate Cancer Properties of Marine-Derived Compounds

This review focuses on marine compounds with anti-prostate cancer properties. Marine species are unique and have great potential for the discovery of anticancer drugs. Marine sources are taxonomically diverse and include bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, algae, and mangroves. Marine-derived compounds, including nucleotides, amides, quinones, polyethers, and peptides are biologically active compounds isolated from marine organisms such as sponges, ascidians, gorgonians, soft corals, and bryozoans, including those mentioned above. Several compound classes such as macrolides and alkaloids include drugs with anti-cancer mechanisms, such as antioxidants, anti-angiogenics, antiproliferatives, and apoptosis-inducing drugs. Despite the diversity of marine species, most marine-derived bioactive compounds have not yet been evaluated. Our objective is to explore marine compounds to identify new treatment strategies for prostate cancer. This review discusses chemically and pharmacologically diverse marine natural compounds and their sources in the context of prostate cancer drug treatment.

Marine Pharmacology in 2012-2013: Marine Compounds with Antibacterial, Antidiabetic, Antifungal, Anti-Inflammatory, Antiprotozoal, Antituberculosis, and Antiviral Activities; Affecting the Immune and Nervous Systems, and Other Miscellaneous Mechanisms of Action

The peer-reviewed marine pharmacology literature from 2012 to 2013 was systematically reviewed, consistent with the 1998–2011 reviews of this series. Marine pharmacology research from 2012 to 2013, conducted by scientists from 42 countries in addition to the United States, reported findings on the preclinical pharmacology of 257 marine compounds. The preclinical pharmacology of compounds isolated from marine organisms revealed antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, antiviral and anthelmitic pharmacological activities for 113 marine natural products. In addition, 75 marine compounds were reported to have antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory activities and affect the immune and nervous system. Finally, 69 marine compounds were shown to display miscellaneous mechanisms of action which could contribute to novel pharmacological classes. Thus, in 2012–2013, the preclinical marine natural product pharmacology pipeline provided novel pharmacology and lead compounds to the clinical marine pharmaceutical pipeline, and contributed significantly to potentially novel therapeutic approaches to several global disease categories.

Efficient gene delivery to human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells by cationized Porphyra yezoensis polysaccharide nanoparticles

This study centered on an innovative application of Porphyra yezoensis polysaccharide (PPS) with cationic modification as a safe and efficient nonviral gene vector to deliver a plasmid encoding human Wnt3a (pWnt3a) into human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (HUMSCs). After modification with branched low-molecular-weight (1,200 Da) polyethylenimine, the cationized PPS (CPPS) was combined with pWnt3a to form spherical nanoscale particles (CPPS-pWnt3a nanoparticles). Particle size and distribution indicated that the CPPS-pWnt3a nanoparticles at a CPPS:pWnt3a weight ratio of 40:1 might be a potential candidate for DNA plasmid transfection. A cytotoxicity assay demonstrated that the nanoparticles prepared at a CPPS:pWnt3a weight ratio of 40:1 were nontoxic to HUMSCs compared to those of Lipofectamine 2000 and polyethylenimine (25 kDa). These nanoparticles were further transfected to HUMSCs. Western blotting demonstrated that the nanoparticles (CPPS:pWnt3a weight ratio 40:1) had the greatest transfection efficiency in HUMSCs, which was significantly higher than that of Lipofectamine 2000; however, when the CPPS:pWnt3a weight ratio was increased to 80:1, the nanoparticle-treated group showed no obvious improvement in translation efficiency over Lipofectamine 2000. Therefore, CPPS, a novel cationic polysaccharide derived from P. yezoensis, could be developed into a safe, efficient, nonviral gene vector in a gene-delivery system.

Statistical research on the bioactivity of new marine natural products discovered during the 28 years from 1985 to 2012

Every year, hundreds of new compounds are discovered from the metabolites of marine organisms. Finding new and useful compounds is one of the crucial drivers for this field of research. Here we describe the statistics of bioactive compounds discovered from marine organisms from 1985 to 2012. This work is based on our database, which contains information on more than 15,000 chemical substances including 4196 bioactive marine natural products. We performed a comprehensive statistical analysis to understand the characteristics of the novel bioactive compounds and detail temporal trends, chemical structures, species distribution, and research progress. We hope this meta-analysis will provide useful information for research into the bioactivity of marine natural products and drug development.

Marine bioactives and potential application in sports

An enriched diet with antioxidants, such as vitamin E, vitamin C, β-carotene and phenolic compounds, has always been suggested to improve oxidative stress, preventing related diseases. In this respect, marine natural product (MNP), such as COX inhibitors, marine steroids, molecules interfering with factors involved in the modulation of gene expression (such as NF-κB), macrolides, many antioxidant agents, thermogenic substances and even substances that could help the immune system and that result in the protection of cartilage, have been recently gaining attention. The marine world represents a reserve of bioactive ingredients, with considerable potential as functional food. Substances, such as chitin, chitosan, n-3 oils, carotenoids, vitamins, minerals and bioactive peptides, can provide several health benefits, such as the reduction of cardiovascular diseases, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic activities. In addition, new marine bioactive substances with potential anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and thermogenic capacity may provide health benefits and performance improvement, especially in those who practice physical activity, because of their increased free radical and Reacting Oxygen Species (ROS) production during exercise, and, particularly, in athletes. The aim of this review is to examine the potential pharmacological properties and application of many marine bioactive substances in sports.

Pharmaceutical potential of a fucoidan-like sulphated polysaccharide isolated from Halodule pinifolia

In continuation with the screening of biological properties of seagrasses, we isolated sulphated polysaccharides from Halodule pinifolia. This is the first report that indicates the presence of fucoidan-like H. pinifolia crude sulphated polysaccharide (HPCSP) that are commonly found in brown algae being present in marine angiosperms. Fucoidan-like structures such as β-mannuronic acid residues and sulphate groups were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral analysis. There was a high content of uronic acid. The isolated HPCSP consisted mainly of total sugar (54.17%), protein (11.06%), carbon (18.25%), nitrogen (1.77%), hydrogen (3.62%), C/N ratio (2.04%) and uronic acid (2.61%). This isolated HPCSP was further investigated to determine anticoagulant and antioxidant activity. The HPCSP had high activity in the total antioxidant assay (125.86 mg ascorbic acid equivalents/g), DPPH radical scavenging rate (IC50 value 2.024 ± 0.12 μg/mL), deoxyribose radical scavenging rate (51.82% at 1000 μg/mL) and H2O2 radical scavenging rate (IC50 value 6.904 ± 0.34 μg/mL). In the anticoagulant assay, prolonged clotting time was observed with application of HPCSP with increasing concentrations. Further purification and characterization process is underway to confirm the structures of HPCSP. From the observed results, this fucoidan-like HPCSP could be developed as a new natural source of potential antioxidants in the functional food industry.

Marine pharmacology in 2009-2011: marine compounds with antibacterial, antidiabetic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action

The peer-reviewed marine pharmacology literature from 2009 to 2011 is presented in this review, following the format used in the 1998–2008 reviews of this series. The pharmacology of structurally-characterized compounds isolated from marine animals, algae, fungi and bacteria is discussed in a comprehensive manner. Antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral pharmacological activities were reported for 102 marine natural products. Additionally, 60 marine compounds were observed to affect the immune and nervous system as well as possess antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects. Finally, 68 marine metabolites were shown to interact with a variety of receptors and molecular targets, and thus will probably contribute to multiple pharmacological classes upon further mechanism of action studies. Marine pharmacology during 2009–2011 remained a global enterprise, with researchers from 35 countries, and the United States, contributing to the preclinical pharmacology of 262 marine compounds which are part of the preclinical pharmaceutical pipeline. Continued pharmacological research with marine natural products will contribute to enhance the marine pharmaceutical clinical pipeline, which in 2013 consisted of 17 marine natural products, analogs or derivatives targeting a limited number of disease categories.

Marine bioactives: pharmacological properties and potential applications against inflammatory diseases

Inflammation is a hot topic in medical research, because it plays a key role in inflammatory diseases: rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and other forms of arthritis, diabetes, heart diseases, irritable bowel syndrome, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, allergies, asthma, even cancer and many others. Over the past few decades, it was realized that the process of inflammation is virtually the same in different disorders, and a better understanding of inflammation may lead to better treatments for numerous diseases. Inflammation is the activation of the immune system in response to infection, irritation, or injury, with an influx of white blood cells, redness, heat, swelling, pain, and dysfunction of the organs involved. Although the pathophysiological basis of these conditions is not yet fully understood, reactive oxygen species (ROS) have often been implicated in their pathogenesis. In fact, in inflammatory diseases the antioxidant defense system is compromised, as evidenced by increased markers of oxidative stress, and decreased levels of protective antioxidant enzymes in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). An enriched diet containing antioxidants, such as vitamin E, vitamin C, β-carotene and phenolic substances, has been suggested to improve symptoms by reducing disease-related oxidative stress. In this respect, the marine world represents a largely untapped reserve of bioactive ingredients, and considerable potential exists for exploitation of these bioactives as functional food ingredients. Substances such as n-3 oils, carotenoids, vitamins, minerals and peptides provide a myriad of health benefits, including reduction of cardiovascular diseases, anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory activities. New marine bioactives are recently gaining attention, since they could be helpful in combating chronic inflammatory degenerative conditions. The aim of this review is to examine the published studies concerning the potential pharmacological properties and application of many marine bioactives against inflammatory diseases.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) pyruvate kinase as a target for bis-indole alkaloids with antibacterial activities

Novel classes of antimicrobials are needed to address the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). We have recently identified pyruvate kinase (PK) as a potential novel drug target based upon it being an essential hub in the MRSA interactome (Cherkasov, A., Hsing, M., Zoraghi, R., Foster, L. J., See, R. H., Stoynov, N., Jiang, J., Kaur, S., Lian, T., Jackson, L., Gong, H., Swayze, R., Amandoron, E., Hormozdiari, F., Dao, P., Sahinalp, C., Santos-Filho, O., Axerio-Cilies, P., Byler, K., McMaster, W. R., Brunham, R. C., Finlay, B. B., and Reiner, N. E. (2011) J. Proteome Res. 10, 1139-1150; Zoraghi, R., See, R. H., Axerio-Cilies, P., Kumar, N. S., Gong, H., Moreau, A., Hsing, M., Kaur, S., Swayze, R. D., Worrall, L., Amandoron, E., Lian, T., Jackson, L., Jiang, J., Thorson, L., Labriere, C., Foster, L., Brunham, R. C., McMaster, W. R., Finlay, B. B., Strynadka, N. C., Cherkasov, A., Young, R. N., and Reiner, N. E. (2011) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 55, 2042-2053). Screening of an extract library of marine invertebrates against MRSA PK resulted in the identification of bis-indole alkaloids of the spongotine (A), topsentin (B, D), and hamacanthin (C) classes isolated from the Topsentia pachastrelloides as novel bacterial PK inhibitors. These compounds potently and selectively inhibited both MRSA PK enzymatic activity and S. aureus growth in vitro. The most active compounds, cis-3,4-dihyrohyrohamacanthin B (C) and bromodeoxytopsentin (D), were identified as highly potent MRSA PK inhibitors (IC(50) values of 16-60 nM) with at least 166-fold selectivity over human PK isoforms. These novel anti-PK natural compounds exhibited significant antibacterial activities against S. aureus, including MRSA (minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 12.5 and 6.25 μg/ml, respectively) with selectivity indices (CC(50)/MIC) >4. We also report the discrete structural features of the MRSA PK tetramer as determined by x-ray crystallography, which is suitable for selective targeting of the bacterial enzyme. The co-crystal structure of compound C with MRSA PK confirms that the latter is a target for bis-indole alkaloids. It elucidates the essential structural requirements for PK inhibitors in "small" interfaces that provide for tetramer rigidity and efficient catalytic activity. Our results identified a series of natural products as novel MRSA PK inhibitors, providing the basis for further development of potential novel antimicrobials.

Antiviral activity of natural products extracted from marine organisms

Many epidemics have broken out over the centuries. Hundreds and thousands of humans have died over a disease. Available treatments for infectious diseases have always been limited. Some infections are more deadly than the others, especially viral pathogens. These pathogens have continuously resisted all kinds of medical treatment, due to a need for new treatments to be developed. Drugs are present in nature and are also synthesized in vitro and they help in combating diseases and restoring health. Synthesizing drugs is a hard and time consuming task, which requires a lot of man power and financial aid. However, the natural compounds are just lying around on the earth, may it be land or water. Over a thousand novel compounds isolated from marine organisms are used as antiviral agents. Others are being pharmacologically tested. Today, over forty antiviral compounds are present in the pharmacological market. Some of these compounds are undergoing clinical and preclinical stages. Marine compounds are paving the way for a new trend in modern medicine.

Cnidarians as a source of new marine bioactive compounds--an overview of the last decade and future steps for bioprospecting

Marine invertebrates are rich sources of bioactive compounds and their biotechnological potential attracts scientific and economic interest worldwide. Although sponges are the foremost providers of marine bioactive compounds, cnidarians are also being studied with promising results. This diverse group of marine invertebrates includes over 11,000 species, 7500 of them belonging to the class Anthozoa. We present an overview of some of the most promising marine bioactive compounds from a therapeutic point of view isolated from cnidarians in the first decade of the 21st century. Anthozoan orders Alcyonacea and Gorgonacea exhibit by far the highest number of species yielding promising compounds. Antitumor activity has been the major area of interest in the screening of cnidarian compounds, the most promising ones being terpenoids (monoterpenoids, diterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids). We also discuss the future of bioprospecting for new marine bioactive compounds produced by cnidarians.

Marine pharmacology in 2007-8: Marine compounds with antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the immune and nervous system, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action

The peer-reviewed marine pharmacology literature in 2007-8 is covered in this review, which follows a similar format to the previous 1998-2006 reviews of this series. The preclinical pharmacology of structurally characterized marine compounds isolated from marine animals, algae, fungi and bacteria is discussed in a comprehensive manner. Antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, antimalarial, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis and antiviral activities were reported for 74 marine natural products. Additionally, 59 marine compounds were reported to affect the cardiovascular, immune and nervous systems as well as to possess anti-inflammatory effects. Finally, 65 marine metabolites were shown to bind to a variety of receptors and miscellaneous molecular targets, and thus upon further completion of mechanism of action studies, will contribute to several pharmacological classes. Marine pharmacology research during 2007-8 remained a global enterprise, with researchers from 26 countries, and the United States, contributing to the preclinical pharmacology of 197 marine compounds which are part of the preclinical marine pharmaceuticals pipeline. Sustained preclinical research with marine natural products demonstrating novel pharmacological activities, will probably result in the expansion of the current marine pharmaceutical clinical pipeline, which currently consists of 13 marine natural products, analogs or derivatives targeting a limited number of disease categories.

Marine algal sources for treating bacterial diseases

Microorganisms are the causative agents for various types of diseases in humans, animals, and plants. The invention of antibiotics against the bacterial diseases in the early twentieth century improved the heath conditions of the humans, but it resulted in the development of variable drug/multidrug-resistant strains which are now posing great challenge to cure the diseases. The need for searching novel bioactive compounds having potential therapeutic value resulted in exploration of oceans. Screening diverse fauna and flora in oceans opened new avenues for the development of novel therapeutic agents such as sesquiterpenes, phlorotannins, bromoditerpenes, halogenated furanones, and algal lectin which show effect on a wide range of Gram-negative and positive bacteria. Hence these bioactive compounds can be used as broad spectrum antibiotics, antibacterial, and antifouling agents.

Antibacterials from the sea

The ocean contains a host of macroscopic life in a great microbial soup. Unlike the terrestrial environment, an aqueous environment provides perpetual propinquity and blurs spatial distinctions. Marine organisms are under a persistent threat of infection by resident pathogenic microbes including bacteria, and in response they have engineered complex organic compounds with antibacterial activity from a diverse set of biological precursors. The diluting effect of the ocean drives the construction of potent molecules that are stable to harsh salty conditions. Members of each class of metabolite-ribosomal and non-ribosomal peptides, alkaloids, polyketides, and terpenes-have been shown to exhibit antibacterial activity. The sophistication and diversity of these metabolites points to the ingenuity and flexibility of biosynthetic processes in Nature. Compared with their terrestrial counterparts, antibacterial marine natural products have received much less attention. Thus, a concerted effort to discover new antibacterials from marine sources has the potential to contribute significantly to the treatment of the ever increasing drug-resistant infectious diseases.

Mediterranean jellyfish venoms: a review on scyphomedusae

The production of natural toxins is an interesting aspect, which characterizes the physiology and the ecology of a number of marine species that use them for defence/offence purposes. Cnidarians are of particular concern from this point of view; their venoms are contained in specialized structures--the nematocysts--which, after mechanical or chemical stimulation, inject the venom in the prey or in the attacker. Cnidarian stinging is a serious health problem for humans in the zones where extremely venomous jellyfish or anemones are common, such as in temperate and tropical oceanic waters and particularly along several Pacific coasts, and severe cases of envenomation, including also lethal cases mainly induced by cubomedusae, were reported. On the contrary, in the Mediterranean region the problem of jellyfish stings is quite modest, even though they can have anyhow an impact on public health and be of importance from the ecological and economic point of view owing to the implications on ecosystems and on some human activities such as tourism, bathing and fishing. This paper reviews the knowledge about the various aspects related to the occurrence and the stinging of the Mediterranean scyphozoan jellyfish as well as the activity of their venoms.

Isolation of a sulphated polysaccharide from a recently discovered sponge species (Celtodoryx girardae) and determination of its anti-herpetic activity

Exopolysaccharides (EPS) were extracted from a sponge, Celtodoryx girardae recently discovered in the Golfe du Morbihan in 2000. Sponge samples were collected monthly from November 2007 to May 2008. SEC analysis of EPS samples showed that they exhibit a unique molecular weight of approximately 800 kDa. However, infrared analysis revealed that structural seasonal variations occur. EPS fractions also exhibit significant sulphate contents and were screened in vitro for a potential antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). The best result was obtained with a sample collected in January which exhibits an EC(50) of 5.9 microg/mL without cytotoxicity on the Vero cell line. Experiments carried out to elucidate the mechanism of the EPS showed that the sulphated groups of EPS interact with the glycoproteins on the surface of the virus' membrane.

Marine pharmacology in 2005-6: Marine compounds with anthelmintic, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the cardiovascular, immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action

BACKGROUND

The review presents the 2005-2006 peer-reviewed marine pharmacology literature, and follows a similar format to the authors' 1998-2004 reviews. The preclinical pharmacology of chemically characterized marine compounds isolated from marine animals, algae, fungi and bacteria is systematically presented.

RESULTS

Anthelmintic, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, antimalarial, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis and antiviral activities were reported for 78 marine chemicals. Additionally 47 marine compounds were reported to affect the cardiovascular, immune and nervous system as well as possess anti-inflammatory effects. Finally, 58 marine compounds were shown to bind to a variety of molecular targets, and thus could potentially contribute to several pharmacological classes.

CONCLUSIONS

Marine pharmacology research during 2005-2006 was truly global in nature, involving investigators from 32 countries, and the United States, and contributed 183 marine chemical leads to the research pipeline aimed at the discovery of novel therapeutic agents.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Continued preclinical and clinical research with marine natural products demonstrating a broad spectrum of pharmacological activity will probably result in novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of multiple disease categories.

Marine pharmacology in 2005-2006: antitumour and cytotoxic compounds

During 2005 and 2006, marine pharmacology research directed towards the discovery and development of novel antitumour agents was reported in 171 peer-reviewed articles. The purpose of this article is to present a structured review of the antitumour and cytotoxic properties of 136 marine natural products, many of which are novel compounds that belong to diverse structural classes, including polyketides, terpenes, steroids and peptides. The organisms yielding these bioactive marine compounds included invertebrate animals, algae, fungi and bacteria. Antitumour pharmacological studies were conducted with 42 structurally defined marine natural products in a number of experimental and clinical models which further defined their mechanisms of action. Particularly potent in vitro cytotoxicity data generated with murine and human tumour cell lines were reported for 94 novel marine chemicals with as yet undetermined mechanisms of action. Noteworthy is the fact that marine anticancer research was sustained by a global collaborative effort, involving researchers from Australia, Belgium, Benin, Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Panama, the Philippines, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, Thailand, United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA). Finally, this 2005-2006 overview of the marine pharmacology literature highlights the fact that the discovery of novel marine antitumour agents continued at the same active pace as during 1998-2004.

Marine pharmacology in 2003-4: marine compounds with anthelmintic antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antiplatelet, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the cardiovascular, immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action

The current marine pharmacology review that covers the peer-reviewed literature during 2003 and 2004 is a sequel to the authors' 1998-2002 reviews, and highlights the preclinical pharmacology of 166 marine chemicals derived from a diverse group of marine animals, algae, fungi and bacteria. Anthelmintic, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, antimalarial, antiplatelet, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis or antiviral activities were reported for 67 marine chemicals. Additionally 45 marine compounds were shown to have significant effects on the cardiovascular, immune and nervous system as well as possessing anti-inflammatory effects. Finally, 54 marine compounds were reported to act on a variety of molecular targets and thus may potentially contribute to several pharmacological classes. Thus, during 2003-2004, research on the pharmacology of marine natural products which involved investigators from Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Belgium, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, the Philippines, Portugal, Russia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States, contributed numerous chemical leads for the continued global search for novel therapeutic agents with broad spectrum activity.

Marine pharmacology in 2003–2004: Anti-tumour and cytotoxic compounds

During 2003 and 2004, marine pharmacology research directed towards the discovery and development of novel anti-tumour agents was published in 163 peer-reviewed articles. The purpose of this review is to present a structured assessment of the anti-tumour and cytotoxic properties of 150 marine natural products, many of which are novel compounds that belong to diverse structural classes, including polyketides, terpenes, steroids and peptides. The organisms yielding these bioactive marine compounds include invertebrate animals, algae, fungi and bacteria. Anti-tumour pharmacological studies were conducted with 31 structurally defined marine natural products in a number of experimental and clinical models that further defined their mechanisms of action. Particularly potent in vitro cytotoxicity data generated with murine and human tumour cell lines was reported for 119 novel marine chemicals with as yet undetermined mechanisms of action. Noteworthy is the fact that marine anti-cancer research was sustained by a global collaborative effort, involving researchers from Australia, Austria, Canada, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand and the United States of America (USA). Finally, this 2003-2004 overview of the marine pharmacology literature highlights the fact that the discovery of novel marine anti-tumour agents continued at the same pace as during 1998-2002.

Turkish freshwater and marine macrophyte extracts show in vitro antiprotozoal activity and inhibit FabI, a key enzyme of Plasmodium falciparum fatty acid biosynthesis

The ethanolic extracts of a number of Turkish freshwater macrophytes (Potamogeton perfoliatus, Ranunculus tricophyllus and Cladophora glomerata) and marine macroalgae (Dictyota dichotoma, Halopteris scoparia, Posidonia oceanica, Scinaia furcellata, Sargassum natans and Ulva lactuca) were assayed for their in vitro antiprotozoal activity. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania donovani and Plasmodium falciparum were used as test organisms. The cytotoxicity of the extracts was also assessed against primary rat skeletal myoblasts (L6 cells). Whereas none of the extracts were active against T. cruzi, all crude extracts displayed appreciable trypanocidal activity against T. brucei rhodesiense, with S. natans being the most active one (IC(50) 7.4microg/ml). Except for the marine alga H. scoparia, all extracts also possessed leishmanicidal potential. The best antileishmanial activity was exerted by U. lactuca and P. oceanica (IC(50)'s 5.9 and 8.0microg/ml, respectively). Five extracts that demonstrated inhibitory activity towards P. falciparum (IC(50)'s 18.1-48.8microg/ml) were simultaneously assayed against FabI, a crucial enzyme of the fatty acid system of P. falciparum, to find out whether FabI was their target. The extracts of C. glomerata and U. lactuca efficiently inhibited the FabI enzyme with IC(50) values of 1.0 and 4.0microg/ml, respectively. None of the extracts were cytotoxic towards mammalian L6 cells. This work reports for the first time antiprotozoal activity of some Turkish marine and freshwater algae, as well as a target-based antiplasmodial screening for the identification of P. falciparum FabI inhibitors from aquatic and marine macrophytes.

The current status of natural products from marine fungi and their potential as anti-infective agents

A growing number of marine fungi are the sources of novel and potentially life-saving bioactive secondary metabolites. Here, we have discussed some of these novel antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal compounds isolated from marine-derived fungi and their possible roles in disease eradication. We have also discussed the future commercial exploitation of these compounds for possible drug development using metabolic engineering and post-genomics approaches.

In Vitro Antiviral Activity of Marine Sponges Collected Off Brazilian Coast

This paper describes the in vitro antiviral evaluation of 27 different marine sponges (Porifera) collected off Brazilian coastline in the search for novel drug leads. With these sponges aqueous and organic extracts were prepared and tested for anti-herpetic (HSV-1, KOS strain), anti-adenovirus (human AdV serotype 5) and anti-rotavirus (simian RV SA11) activities. The evaluation of the cytotoxicity and potential antiviral activity of these extracts were performed by using MTT assay. Results were expressed as 50% cytotoxicity (CC50) and 50% effective (EC50) concentrations, respectively, in order to calculate the selectivity indices (SI=CC50/EC50) of each extract. From the 40 sponge extracts tested, 17 extracts showed antiviral action in different degrees. The results concerning the antiviral activity were obtained by using three different strategies: (1) simultaneous assay, when sponge extracts were added to the cells at the same time of the viruses; (2) pre treatment assay, when sponge extracts were added to the cells 15 h prior to the viruses infection; and (3) post treatment assay, when the viruses were added to the cells and remained during 2 h prior to the addition of sponge extracts. The antiviral assays with HSV-1/KOS and AdV-5 showed more promising results when the pre treatment test was employed. In relation to the RV-SA11 virus, only the simultaneous assay showed antiviral activity. The extracts presenting the most promising results were the aqueous extracts of Cliona sp., Agelas sp.2, Tethya sp., Axinella aff corrugata, Polymastia janeirensis and Protosuberites sp., and these extracts deserve special attention in further studies.

Indole alkaloid marine natural products: an established source of cancer drug leads with considerable promise for the control of parasitic, neurological and other diseases

The marine environment produces natural products from a variety of structural classes exhibiting activity against numerous disease targets. Historically marine natural products have largely been explored as anticancer agents. The indole alkaloids are a class of marine natural products that show unique promise in the development of new drug leads. This report reviews the literature on indole alkaloids of marine origin and also highlights our own research. Specific biological activities of indole alkaloids presented here include: cytotoxicity, antiviral, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, serotonin antagonism, Ca-releasing, calmodulin antagonism, and other pharmacological activities.

Marine pharmacology in 2001--2002: marine compounds with anthelmintic, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antidiabetic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antiplatelet, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the cardiovascular, immune and nervous systems and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action

During 2001--2002, research on the pharmacology of marine chemicals continued to be global in nature involving investigators from Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the United States. This current article, a sequel to the authors' 1998, 1999 and 2000 marine pharmacology reviews, classifies 106 marine chemicals derived from a diverse group of marine animals, algae, fungi and bacteria, on the basis of peer-reviewed preclinical pharmacology. Anthelmintic, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antifungal, antimalarial, antiplatelet, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis or antiviral activities were reported for 56 marine chemicals. An additional 19 marine compounds were shown to have significant effects on the cardiovascular, immune and nervous system as well as to possess anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic effects. Finally, 31 marine compounds were reported to act on a variety of molecular targets and thus may potentially contribute to several pharmacological classes. Thus, during 2001--2002 pharmacological research with marine chemicals continued to contribute potentially novel chemical leads for the ongoing global search for therapeutic agents for the treatment of multiple disease categories.