1
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Gao C, Gohel CA, Leng Y, Ma J, Goldman D, Levine AJ, Penzo MA. Molecular and spatial profiling of the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus. eLife 2023; 12:81818. [PMID: 36867023 PMCID: PMC10014079 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT) is known to regulate various cognitive and behavioral processes. However, while functional diversity among PVT circuits has often been linked to cellular differences, the molecular identity and spatial distribution of PVT cell types remain unclear. To address this gap, here we used single nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) and identified five molecularly distinct PVT neuronal subtypes in the mouse brain. Additionally, multiplex fluorescent in situ hybridization of top marker genes revealed that PVT subtypes are organized by a combination of previously unidentified molecular gradients. Lastly, comparing our dataset with a recently published single-cell sequencing atlas of the thalamus yielded novel insight into the PVT's connectivity with the cortex, including unexpected innervation of auditory and visual areas. This comparison also revealed that our data contains a largely non-overlapping transcriptomic map of multiple midline thalamic nuclei. Collectively, our findings uncover previously unknown features of the molecular diversity and anatomical organization of the PVT and provide a valuable resource for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Gao
- National Institute of Mental HealthBethesdaUnited States
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown UniversityProvidenceUnited States
| | - Chiraag A Gohel
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and AlcoholismRockvilleUnited States
| | - Yan Leng
- National Institute of Mental HealthBethesdaUnited States
| | - Jun Ma
- National Institute of Mental HealthBethesdaUnited States
| | - David Goldman
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and AlcoholismRockvilleUnited States
| | - Ariel J Levine
- National Institute of Child Health and Human DevelopmentBethesdaUnited States
| | - Mario A Penzo
- National Institute of Mental HealthBethesdaUnited States
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2
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Patil JD, Alrashid MA, Eltabbakh A, Fredericks S. The association between stress, emotional states, and tinnitus: a mini-review. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1131979. [PMID: 37207076 PMCID: PMC10188965 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1131979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Extensive literature supporting the view of tinnitus induced stress in patients is available. However, limited evidence has been produced studying the opposite, that is, does stress cause tinnitus? The hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis, one of the main neuroendocrine systems involved in stress response, is commonly disturbed in tinnitus patients. Patients with chronic tinnitus have been shown to develop abnormal responses to psycho-social stress, where the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis response is weaker and delayed, suggesting chronic stress contributes to the development of chronic tinnitus. The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system also plays a major role in stress response and its chronic hyperactivity seems to be involved in developing tinnitus. Psycho-social stress has been shown to share the same probability of developing tinnitus as occupational noise and contributes to worsening tinnitus. Additionally, exposure to high stress levels and occupational noise doubles the likelihood of developing tinnitus. Interestingly, short-term stress has been shown to protect the cochlea in animals, but chronic stress exposure has negative consequences. Emotional stress also worsens pre-existing tinnitus and is identified as an important indicator of tinnitus severity. Although there is limited body of literature, stress does seem to play a vital role in the development of tinnitus. This review aims to highlight the association between stress, emotional states, and the development of tinnitus while also addressing the neural and hormonal pathways involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayaditya Devpal Patil
- Department of Surgery, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Jayaditya Devpal Patil,
| | | | - Ayah Eltabbakh
- Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Al Muharraq, Bahrain
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3
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Rodríguez-Flores TC, Palomo-Briones GA, Robles F, Ramos F. Proposal for a computational model of incentive memory. COGN SYST RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2022.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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4
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Saleille L, Tallot L, Brown BL, Wirth S, Doyère V. Gap in the conditioned stimulus: differential impacts on temporal expectancy in appetitive and aversive conditions in rats. Behav Processes 2022; 203:104762. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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5
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Zambetti PR, Schuessler BP, Lecamp BE, Shin A, Kim EJ, Kim JJ. Ecological analysis of Pavlovian fear conditioning in rats. Commun Biol 2022; 5:830. [PMID: 35982246 PMCID: PMC9388582 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03802-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian fear conditioning, which offers the advantage of simplicity in both the control of conditional and unconditional stimuli (CS, US) presentation and the analysis of specific conditional and unconditional responses (CR, UR) in a controlled laboratory setting, has been the standard model in basic and translational fear research. Despite 100 years of experiments, the utility of fear conditioning has not been trans-situationally validated in real-life contexts. We thus investigated whether fear conditioning readily occurs and guides the animal's future behavior in an ecologically-relevant environment. To do so, Long-Evans rats foraging for food in an open arena were presented with a tone CS paired with electric shock US to their dorsal neck/body that instinctively elicited escape UR to the safe nest. On subsequent test days, the tone-shock paired animals failed to exhibit fear CR to the CS. In contrast, animals that encountered a realistic agent of danger (a looming artificial owl) paired with a shock, simulating a plausible predatory strike, instantly fled to the nest when presented with a tone for the first time. These results highlight the possibility of a nonassociative, rather than standard associative, fear process providing survival function in life-threatening situations that animals are likely to encounter in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter R Zambetti
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Bryan P Schuessler
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Bryce E Lecamp
- Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Andrew Shin
- Undergraduate Program in Human Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Eun Joo Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Jeansok J Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA.
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6
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Berg H, Ma Y, Rueter A, Kaczkurkin A, Burton PC, DeYoung CG, MacDonald AW, Sponheim SR, Lissek SM. Salience and central executive networks track overgeneralization of conditioned-fear in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol Med 2021; 51:2610-2619. [PMID: 32366335 PMCID: PMC9011923 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291720001166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Generalization of conditioned-fear, a core feature of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), has been the focus of several recent neuroimaging studies. A striking outcome of these studies is the frequency with which neural correlates of generalization fall within hubs of well-established functional networks including salience (SN), central executive (CEN), and default networks (DN). Neural substrates of generalization found to date may thus reflect traces of large-scale brain networks that form more expansive neural representations of generalization. The present study includes the first network-based analysis of generalization and PTSD-related abnormalities therein. METHODS fMRI responses in established intrinsic connectivity networks (ICNs) representing SN, CEN, and DN were assessed during a generalized conditioned-fear task in male combat veterans (N = 58) with wide-ranging PTSD symptom severity. The task included five rings of graded size. Extreme sizes served as conditioned danger-cues (CS+: paired with shock) and safety-cues (CS-), and the three intermediate sizes served as generalization stimuli (GSs) forming a continuum-of-size between CS+ and CS-. Generalization-gradients were assessed as behavioral and ICN response slopes from CS+, through GSs, to CS-. Increasing PTSD symptomatology was predicted to relate to less-steep slopes indicative of stronger generalization. RESULTS SN, CEN, and DN responses fell along generalization-gradients with levels of generalization within and between SN and CEN scaling with PTSD symptom severity. CONCLUSIONS Neural substrates of generalized conditioned-fear include large-scale networks that adhere to the functional organization of the brain. Current findings implicate levels of generalization in SN and CEN as promising neural markers of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Berg
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Yizhou Ma
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Amanda Rueter
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Antonia Kaczkurkin
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Philip C Burton
- Office of the CLA Associate Dean for Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Colin G DeYoung
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Angus W MacDonald
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Scott R Sponheim
- Minneapolis Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Shmuel M Lissek
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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7
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Van Dessel J, Danckaerts M, Moerkerke M, Van der Oord S, Morsink S, Lemiere J, Sonuga-Barke E. Dissociating brain systems that respond to contingency and valence during monetary loss avoidance in adolescence. Brain Cogn 2021; 150:105723. [PMID: 33812271 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2021.105723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Negative reinforcement processes allow individuals to avoid negative and/or harmful outcomes. They depend on the brain's ability to differentiate; (i) contingency from non-contingency, separately from (ii) judgements about positive and negative valence. Thirty-three males (8-18 years) performed a cued reaction-time task during fMRI scanning to differentiate the brain's responses to contingency and valence during loss avoidance. In two conditions, cues indicated no -contingency between participants' responses and monetary loss - (1) CERTAIN LOSS (negative valence) of €0.20, €1 or €5 or (2) CERTAIN LOSS AVOIDANCE (positive valence). In a third condition, cues indicated a contingency between short reaction times and avoidance of monetary loss. As expected participants had shorter reaction times in this latter condition where CONDITIONAL LOSS AVOIDANCE cues activated salience and motor-response-preparation brain networks - independent of the relative valence of the contrast (CERTAIN LOSS or CERTAIN LOSS AVOIDANCE). Effects of valence were seen toward the session's end where CERTAIN LOSS AVOIDANCE cues activated ventral striatum, medial-orbitofrontal cortex and medial-temporal areas more than CERTAIN LOSS. CONDITIONAL LOSS AVOIDANCE trials with feedback indicating "success" activated ventral striatum more than "failure feedback". The findings support the hypothesis that brain networks controlling contingency and valence processes during negative reinforcement are dissociable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen Van Dessel
- Center for Developmental Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, UPC - KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Marina Danckaerts
- Center for Developmental Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, UPC - KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Matthijs Moerkerke
- Center for Developmental Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, UPC - KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Saskia Van der Oord
- Clinical Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sarah Morsink
- Center for Developmental Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, UPC - KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jurgen Lemiere
- Center for Developmental Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, UPC - KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Edmund Sonuga-Barke
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK; Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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8
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Jean-Richard-Dit-Bressel P, Ma C, Bradfield LA, Killcross S, McNally GP. Punishment insensitivity emerges from impaired contingency detection, not aversion insensitivity or reward dominance. eLife 2019; 8:52765. [PMID: 31769756 PMCID: PMC6890457 DOI: 10.7554/elife.52765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Our behaviour is shaped by its consequences - we seek rewards and avoid harm. It has been reported that individuals vary markedly in their avoidance of detrimental consequences, that is in their sensitivity to punishment. The underpinnings of this variability are poorly understood; they may be driven by differences in aversion sensitivity, motivation for reward, and/or instrumental control. We examined these hypotheses by applying several analysis strategies to the behaviour of rats (n = 48; 18 female) trained in a conditioned punishment task that permitted concurrent assessment of punishment, reward-seeking, and Pavlovian fear. We show that punishment insensitivity is a unique phenotype, unrelated to differences in reward-seeking and Pavlovian fear, and due to a failure of instrumental control. Subjects insensitive to punishment are afraid of aversive events, they are simply unable to change their behaviour to avoid them.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cassandra Ma
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Laura A Bradfield
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Centre for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, Australia
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9
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Mora-Gallegos A, Fornaguera J. The effects of environmental enrichment and social isolation and their reversion on anxiety and fear conditioning. Behav Processes 2019; 158:59-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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10
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Dynamics of defensive response mobilization during repeated terminations of exposure to increasing interoceptive threat. Int J Psychophysiol 2018; 131:44-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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11
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LeDoux J, Daw ND. Surviving threats: neural circuit and computational implications of a new taxonomy of defensive behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci 2018; 19:269-282. [PMID: 29593300 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2018.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Research on defensive behaviour in mammals has in recent years focused on elicited reactions; however, organisms also make active choices when responding to danger. We propose a hierarchical taxonomy of defensive behaviour on the basis of known psychological processes. Included are three categories of reactions (reflexes, fixed reactions and habits) and three categories of goal-directed actions (direct action-outcome behaviours and actions based on implicit or explicit forecasting of outcomes). We then use this taxonomy to guide a summary of findings regarding the underlying neural circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science and Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY, USA.,Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatry Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Nathaniel D Daw
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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12
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Moe AAK, Medely GA, Reeks T, Burne THJ, Eyles DW. Short- and long-term effects of risperidone on catalepsy sensitisation and acquisition of conditioned avoidance response: Adolescent vs adult rats. Pharmacol Res 2017; 121:1-13. [PMID: 28414178 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2017.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The effects of antipsychotic drugs (APDs) on the adolescent brain are poorly understood despite a dramatic increase in prescription of these drugs in adolescents over the past twenty years. Neuronal systems continue to be remodeled during adolescence. Therefore, when given in adolescence, antipsychotic drugs (APDs) have the potential to affect this remodeling. In this study we investigated the effects of chronic 22-day risperidone treatment (1.3mg/kg/day) in both adolescent and adult rats. We examined short- and long-term changes in behaviour (catalepsy, locomotion and conditioned avoidance response (CAR)), and dopaminergic and serotonergic neurochemistry in the striatum and the nucleus accumbens. Here, we report that, both during chronic treatment and after a lengthy drug-free interval, risperidone induced a sensitised cataleptic response regardless of the age of exposure. Selectively in adolescents, risperidone-induced catalepsy was inversely correlated with striatal dopamine turnover immediately after chronic treatment. After a drug-free interval, a significant proportion of rats with prior adolescent risperidone treatment also failed to acquire CAR to a defined criterion. Our data provide evidence that the same chronic risperidone treatment regimen can induce contrasting short- and long-term neural outcomes in the adolescent and adult brains.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory A Medely
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Timothy Reeks
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Thomas H J Burne
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Australia; Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Australia
| | - Darryl W Eyles
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Australia; Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Australia.
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13
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Variability in emotional responsiveness and coping style during active avoidance as a window onto psychological vulnerability to stress. Physiol Behav 2016; 158:90-9. [PMID: 26922874 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.02.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Individual differences in coping styles are associated with psychological vulnerability to stress. Recent animal research suggests that coping styles reflect trade-offs between proactive and reactive threat responses during active avoidance paradigms, with proactive responses associated with better stress tolerance. Based on these preclinical findings, we developed a novel instructed active avoidance paradigm to characterize patterns of proactive and reactive responses using behavioral, motoric, and autonomic measures in humans. Analyses revealed significant inter-individual variability not only in the magnitude of general emotional responsiveness but also the likelihood to specifically express proactive or reactive responses. In men but not women, individual differences in general emotional responsiveness were linked to increased trait anxiety while proactive coping style was linked to increased trait aggression. These patterns are consistent with preclinical findings and suggest that instructed active avoidance paradigms may be useful in assessing psychological vulnerability to stress using objective behavioral measures.
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14
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Psotta L, Rockahr C, Gruss M, Kirches E, Braun K, Lessmann V, Bock J, Endres T. Impact of an additional chronic BDNF reduction on learning performance in an Alzheimer mouse model. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:58. [PMID: 25852506 PMCID: PMC4367180 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a crucial role in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology. A number of studies demonstrated that AD patients exhibit reduced BDNF levels in the brain and the blood serum, and in addition, several animal-based studies indicated a potential protective effect of BDNF against Aβ-induced neurotoxicity. In order to further investigate the role of BDNF in the etiology of AD, we created a novel mouse model by crossing a well-established AD mouse model (APP/PS1) with a mouse exhibiting a chronic BDNF deficiency (BDNF+/−). This new triple transgenic mouse model enabled us to further analyze the role of BDNF in AD in vivo. We reasoned that in case BDNF has a protective effect against AD pathology, an AD-like phenotype in our new mouse model should occur earlier and/or in more severity than in the APP/PS1-mice. Indeed, the behavioral analysis revealed that the APP/PS1-BDNF+/−-mice show an earlier onset of learning impairments in a two-way active avoidance task in comparison to APP/PS1- and BDNF+/−-mice. However in the Morris water maze (MWM) test, we could not observe an overall aggrevated impairment in spatial learning and also short-term memory in an object recognition task remained intact in all tested mouse lines. In addition to the behavioral experiments, we analyzed the amyloid plaque pathology in the APP/PS1 and APP/PS1-BDNF+/−-mice and observed a comparable plaque density in the two genotypes. Moreover, our results revealed a higher plaque density in prefrontal cortical compared to hippocampal brain regions. Our data reveal that higher cognitive tasks requiring the recruitment of cortical networks appear to be more severely affected in our new mouse model than learning tasks requiring mainly sub-cortical networks. Furthermore, our observations of an accelerated impairment in active avoidance learning in APP/PS1-BDNF+/−-mice further supports the hypothesis that BDNF deficiency amplifies AD-related cognitive dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Psotta
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Carolin Rockahr
- Department of Zoology/Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Gruss
- Department of Zoology/Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Elmar Kirches
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Katharina Braun
- Department of Zoology/Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany ; Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Volkmar Lessmann
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany ; Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Bock
- Department of Zoology/Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany ; Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Endres
- Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany ; Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg Magdeburg, Germany
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15
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Galatzer-Levy IR, Moscarello J, Blessing EM, Klein J, Cain CK, LeDoux JE. Heterogeneity in signaled active avoidance learning: substantive and methodological relevance of diversity in instrumental defensive responses to threat cues. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:179. [PMID: 25309354 PMCID: PMC4173321 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals exposed to traumatic stressors follow divergent patterns including resilience and chronic stress. However, researchers utilizing animal models that examine learned or instrumental threat responses thought to have translational relevance for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and resilience typically use central tendency statistics that assume population homogeneity. This approach potentially overlooks fundamental differences that can explain human diversity in response to traumatic stressors. The current study tests this assumption by identifying and replicating common heterogeneous patterns of response to signaled active avoidance (AA) training. In this paradigm, rats are trained to prevent an aversive outcome (shock) by performing a learned instrumental behavior (shuttling between chambers) during the presentation of a conditioned threat cue (tone). We test the hypothesis that heterogeneous trajectories of threat avoidance provide more accurate model fit compared to a single mean trajectory in two separate studies. Study 1 conducted 3 days of signaled AA training (n = 81 animals) and study 2 conducted 5 days of training (n = 186 animals). We found that four trajectories in both samples provided the strongest model fit. Identified populations included animals that acquired and retained avoidance behavior on the first day (Rapid Avoiders: 22 and 25%); those who never successfully acquired avoidance (Non-Avoiders; 20 and 16%); a modal class who acquired avoidance over 3 days (Modal Avoiders; 37 and 50%); and a population who demonstrated a slow pattern of avoidance, failed to fully acquire avoidance in study 1 and did acquire avoidance on days 4 and 5 in study 2 (Slow Avoiders; 22.0 and 9%). With the exception of the Slow Avoiders in Study 1, populations that acquired demonstrated rapid step-like increases leading to asymptotic levels of avoidance. These findings indicate that avoidance responses are heterogeneous in a way that may be informative for understanding both resilience and PTSD as well as the nature of instrumental behavior acquisition. Characterizing heterogeneous populations based on their response to threat cues would increase the accuracy and translatability of such models and potentially lead to new discoveries that explain diversity in instrumental defensive responses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Justin Moscarello
- Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA
| | - Esther M Blessing
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine New York, NY, USA
| | - JoAnna Klein
- Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA
| | - Christopher K Cain
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine New York, NY, USA ; Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Nathan Klein Institute Orangeburg, SC, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Department of Arts and Sciences, Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Nathan Klein Institute Orangeburg, SC, USA
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16
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McCue MG, LeDoux JE, Cain CK. Medial amygdala lesions selectively block aversive pavlovian-instrumental transfer in rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:329. [PMID: 25278858 PMCID: PMC4166994 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian conditioned stimuli (CSs) play an important role in the reinforcement and motivation of instrumental active avoidance (AA). Conditioned threats can also invigorate ongoing AA responding [aversive Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT)]. The neural circuits mediating AA are poorly understood, although lesion studies suggest that lateral, basal, and central amygdala nuclei, as well as infralimbic prefrontal cortex, make key, and sometimes opposing, contributions. We recently completed an extensive analysis of brain c-Fos expression in good vs. poor avoiders following an AA test (Martinez et al., 2013, Learning and Memory). This analysis identified medial amygdala (MeA) as a potentially important region for Pavlovian motivation of instrumental actions. MeA is known to mediate defensive responding to innate threats as well as social behaviors, but its role in mediating aversive Pavlovian-instrumental interactions is unknown. We evaluated the effect of MeA lesions on Pavlovian conditioning, Sidman two-way AA conditioning (shuttling) and aversive PIT in rats. Mild footshocks served as the unconditioned stimulus in all conditioning phases. MeA lesions had no effect on AA but blocked the expression of aversive PIT and 22 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations in the AA context. Interestingly, MeA lesions failed to affect Pavlovian freezing to discrete threats but reduced freezing to contextual threats when assessed outside of the AA chamber. These findings differentiate MeA from lateral and central amygdala, as lesions of these nuclei disrupt Pavlovian freezing and aversive PIT, but have opposite effects on AA performance. Taken together, these results suggest that MeA plays a selective role in the motivation of instrumental avoidance by general or uncertain Pavlovian threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret G McCue
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research , Orangeburg, NY , USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research , Orangeburg, NY , USA ; Center for Neural Science, New York University , New York, NY , USA
| | - Christopher K Cain
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research , Orangeburg, NY , USA ; Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Medical School , New York, NY , USA
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Campese VD, Kim J, Lázaro-Muñoz G, Pena L, LeDoux JE, Cain CK. Lesions of lateral or central amygdala abolish aversive Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer in rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:161. [PMID: 24847229 PMCID: PMC4019882 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Aversive Pavlovian conditioned stimuli (CSs) elicit defensive reactions (e.g., freezing) and motivate instrumental actions like active avoidance (AA). Pavlovian reactions require connections between the lateral (LA) and central (CeA) nuclei of the amygdala, whereas AA depends on LA and basal amygdala (BA). Thus, the neural circuits mediating conditioned reactions and motivation appear to diverge in the amygdala. However, AA is not ideal for studying conditioned motivation, because Pavlovian and instrumental learning are intermixed. Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) allows for the study of conditioned motivation in isolation. PIT refers to the ability of a Pavlovian CS to modulate a separately-trained instrumental action. The role of the amygdala in aversive PIT is unknown. We designed an aversive PIT procedure in rats and tested the effects of LA, BA, and CeA lesions. Rats received Pavlovian tone-shock pairings followed by Sidman shock-avoidance training. PIT was assessed by comparing shuttling rates in the presence and absence of the tone. Tone presentations facilitated instrumental responding. Aversive PIT was abolished by lesions of LA or CeA, but was unaffected by lesions of BA. These results suggest that LA and CeA are essential for aversive conditioned motivation. More specifically, the results are consistent with a model of amygdala processing in which the CS is encoded in the LA and then, via connections to CeA, the motivation to perform the aversive task is enhanced. These findings have implications for understanding the contribution of amygdala circuits to aversive instrumental motivation, but also for the relation of aversive and appetitive behavioral control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeanny Kim
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | | | - Lashawn Pena
- Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Department of Psychology, Hunter College, CUNY New York, NY, USA
| | - Joseph E LeDoux
- Center for Neural Science, New York University New York, NY, USA ; Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research Orangeburg, NY, USA
| | - Christopher K Cain
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research Orangeburg, NY, USA ; Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine New York, NY, USA
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Martinez RCR, Gupta N, Lázaro-Muñoz G, Sears RM, Kim S, Moscarello JM, LeDoux JE, Cain CK. Active vs. reactive threat responding is associated with differential c-Fos expression in specific regions of amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Learn Mem 2013; 20:446-52. [PMID: 23869027 PMCID: PMC3718200 DOI: 10.1101/lm.031047.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Active avoidance (AA) is an important paradigm for studying mechanisms of aversive instrumental learning, pathological anxiety, and active coping. Unfortunately, AA neurocircuits are poorly understood, partly because behavior is highly variable and reflects a competition between Pavlovian reactions and instrumental actions. Here we exploited the behavioral differences between good and poor avoiders to elucidate the AA neurocircuit. Rats received Sidman AA training and expression of the activity-dependent immediate-early gene c-fos was measured after a shock-free AA test. Six brain regions with known or putative roles in AA were evaluated: amygdala, periaqueductal gray, nucleus accumbens, dorsal striatum, prefrontal cortex (PFC), and hippocampus. Good avoiders showed little Pavlovian freezing and high AA rates at test, the opposite of poor avoiders. Although c-Fos activation was observed throughout the brain, differential activation was found only in subregions of amygdala and PFC. Interestingly, c-Fos correlated with avoidance and freezing in only five of 20 distinct areas evaluated: lateral amygdala, central amygdala, medial amygdala, basal amygdala, and infralimbic PFC. Thus, activity in specific amygdala–PFC circuits likely mediates the competition between instrumental actions and Pavlovian reactions after AA training. Individual differences in AA behavior, long considered a nuisance by researchers, may be the key to elucidating the AA neurocircuit and understanding pathological response profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel C R Martinez
- University of Sao Paulo, Medical School, Surgery Department LIM 26 HCFMUSP, Sao Paulo 01246-903, Brazil
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Cain CK, Maynard GD, Kehne JH. Targeting memory processes with drugs to prevent or cure PTSD. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2012; 21:1323-50. [PMID: 22834476 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2012.704020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a chronic debilitating psychiatric disorder resulting from exposure to a severe traumatic stressor and an area of great unmet medical need. Advances in pharmacological treatments beyond the currently approved SSRIs are needed. AREAS COVERED Background on PTSD, as well as the neurobiology of stress responding and fear conditioning, is provided. Clinical and preclinical data for investigational agents with diverse pharmacological mechanisms are summarized. EXPERT OPINION Advances in the understanding of stress biology and mechanisms of fear conditioning plasticity provide a rationale for treatment approaches that may reduce hyperarousal and dysfunctional aversive memories in PTSD. One challenge is to determine if these components are independent or reflect a common underlying neurobiological alteration. Numerous agents reviewed have potential for reducing PTSD core symptoms or targeted symptoms in chronic PTSD. Promising early data support drug approaches that seek to disrupt dysfunctional aversive memories by interfering with consolidation soon after trauma exposure, or in chronic PTSD, by blocking reconsolidation and/or enhancing extinction. Challenges remain for achieving selectivity when attempting to alter aversive memories. Targeting the underlying traumatic memory with a combination of pharmacological therapies applied with appropriate chronicity, and in combination with psychotherapy, is expected to substantially improve PTSD treatment.
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Nedelescu H, Kelso CM, Lázaro-Muñoz G, Purpura M, Cain CK, Ledoux JE, Aoki C. Endogenous GluR1-containing AMPA receptors translocate to asymmetric synapses in the lateral amygdala during the early phase of fear memory formation: an electron microscopic immunocytochemical study. J Comp Neurol 2011; 518:4723-39. [PMID: 20963825 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Although glutamate receptor 1 (GluR1)-containing α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate receptors (GluR1-AMPARs) are implicated in synaptic plasticity, it has yet to be demonstrated whether endogenous GluR1-AMPARs undergo activity-dependent trafficking in vivo to synapses to support short-term memory (STM) formation. The paradigm of pavlovian fear conditioning (FC) can be used to address this question, because a discrete region-the lateral amygdala (LA)-has been shown unambiguously to be necessary for the formation of the associative memory between a neutral stimulus (tone [CS]) and a noxious stimulus (foot shock [US]). Acquisition of STM for FC can occur even in the presence of protein synthesis inhibitors, indicating that redistribution of pre-existing molecules to synaptic junctions underlies STM. We employed electron microscopic immunocytochemistry to evaluate alterations in the distribution of endogenous AMPAR subunits at LA synapses during the STM phase of FC. Rats were sacrificed 40 minutes following three CS-US pairings. In the LA of paired animals, relative to naïve animals, the proportion of GluR1-AMPAR-labeled synapses increased 99% at spines and 167% in shafts. In the LA of unpaired rats, for which the CS was never associated with the US, GluR1 immunoreactivity decreased 84% at excitatory shaft synapses. GluR2/3 immunoreactivity at excitatory synapses did not change detectably following paired or unpaired conditioning. Thus, the early phase of FC involves rapid redistribution specifically of the GluR1-AMPARs to the postsynaptic membranes in the LA, together with the rapid translocation of GluR1-AMPARs from remote sites into the spine head cytoplasm, yielding behavior changes that are specific to stimulus contingencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermina Nedelescu
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA
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Choi JS, Cain CK, LeDoux JE. The role of amygdala nuclei in the expression of auditory signaled two-way active avoidance in rats. Learn Mem 2010; 17:139-47. [PMID: 20189958 DOI: 10.1101/lm.1676610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Using a two-way signaled active avoidance (2-AA) learning procedure, where rats were trained in a shuttle box to avoid a footshock signaled by an auditory stimulus, we tested the contributions of the lateral (LA), basal (B), and central (CE) nuclei of the amygdala to the expression of instrumental active avoidance conditioned responses (CRs). Discrete or combined lesions of the LA and B, performed after the rats had reached an asymptotic level of avoidance performance, produced deficits in the CR, whereas CE lesions had minimal effect. Fiber-sparing excitotoxic lesions of the LA/B produced by infusions of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) also impaired avoidance performance, confirming that neurons in the LA/B are involved in mediating avoidance CRs. In a final series of experiments, bilateral electrolytic lesions of the CE were performed on a subgroup of animals that failed to acquire the avoidance CR after 3 d of training. CE lesions led to an immediate rescue of avoidance learning, suggesting that activity in CE was inhibiting the instrumental CR. Taken together, these results indicate that the LA and B are essential for the performance of a 2-AA response. The CE is not required, and may in fact constrain the instrumental avoidance response by mediating the generation of competing Pavlovian responses, such as freezing.
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Affiliation(s)
- June-Seek Choi
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York 10003, USA.
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Abstract
The ability to alter emotional responses as circumstances change is a critical component of normal adaptive behavior and is often impaired in psychological disorders. In this review, we discuss four emotional regulation techniques that have been investigated as means to control fear: extinction, cognitive regulation, active coping, and reconsolidation. For each technique, we review what is known about the underlying neural systems, combining findings from animal models and human neuroscience. The current evidence suggests that these different means of regulating fear depend on both overlapping and distinct components of a fear circuitry.
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