Antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Vaccinium corymbosum L. leaf extract

Content of Bioactive Compounds in Highbush Blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum L. Leaves as a Potential Raw Material for Food Technology or Pharmaceutical Industry

This study was performed to investigate the content of selected phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity and the levels of arbutin and hydroquinone in 25 varieties of highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) leaf samples. An analysis of the bioactive components was performed using the HPLC technique and the antioxidant activity was determined via spectrophotometric methods. The content of chlorogenic acid in the analysed leaf extracts ranged from 52.76 mg/g (Spartan variety) to 32.37 mg/g (Nelson variety) and was present in the highest concentration among all the analysed phenolic acids. Particularly large levels of isoquercetin were found in the Aurora, Ivanhoe and Toro varieties (28.40 mg/g, 26.24 mg/g and 21.57 mg/g, respectively). An exceptionally high rutin content (p < 0.05) was found in the Ivanhoe variety (27.19 mg/g) as compared to the other varieties, where it ranged from 2.06 mg/g (Earliblue and Patriot varieties) to 10.55 mg/g (Bluejay variety). The Patriot variety was determined to possess the highest antioxidative activity using the FRAP method (1086.15 μmol Trolox/g d.w.) and based on its DPPH radical scavenging activity (1124.17 μmol Trolox/g d.w.). The total phenolic content (TPC) determined via spectrophotometry ranged from 48.11 mg GAE/g d.w. (Elizabeth variety) to 177.31 GAE/g d.w. (Patriot variety). The arbutin content in the leaves of all tested varieties exceeded 2%, so it can be concluded that they constitute a stable source of arbutin. Three varieties (Bonus, Chanticleer and Herbert) can be considered a potential alternative to bearberry and lingonberry leaves. The hydroquinone content in the analysed extracts was determined to be at a lower level. V. corymbosum leaves can be considered an interesting herbal material for use in traditional herbal medicinal products but not directly for food products and dietary supplements.

Sericultural By-Products: The Potential for Alternative Therapy in Cancer Drug Design

Major progress has been made in cancer research; however, cancer remains one of the most important health-related burdens. Sericulture importance is no longer limited to the textile industry, but its by-products, such as silk fibroin or mulberry, exhibit great impact in the cancer research area. Fibroin, the pivotal compound that is found in silk, owns superior biocompatibility and biodegradability, representing one of the most important biomaterials. Numerous studies have reported its successful use as a drug delivery system, and it is currently used to develop three-dimensional tumor models that lead to a better understanding of cancer biology and play a great role in the development of novel antitumoral strategies. Moreover, sericin's cytotoxic effect on various tumoral cell lines has been reported, but also, it has been used as a nanocarrier for target therapeutic agents. On the other hand, mulberry compounds include various bioactive elements that are well known for their antitumoral activities, such as polyphenols or anthocyanins. In this review, the latest progress of using sericultural by-products in cancer therapy is discussed by highlighting their notable impact in developing novel effective drug strategies.

Pestalotiopsis Species Associated with Blueberry Leaf Spots and Stem Cankers in Sichuan Province of China

Blueberry leaf spots and stem cankers caused by Pestalotiopsis spp. have become a serious threat for the production of blueberry in Sichuan Province. To characterize the etiology of the diseases connected with these fungi, samples showing leaf spot and stem canker symptoms were collected from the 12 main blueberry-growing areas of Sichuan Province from 2015 to 2020 and used for pathogen isolation. In total, 91 fungal isolates were obtained with preliminary morphological identification and 48 representative strains were selected for further pathogenicity test and molecular identification. Four species, including Pestalotiopsis clavispora (Neopestalotiopsis clavispora) (57.14%), P. trachicarpicola (28.57%), P. chamaeropis (13.19%), and P. adusta (1.10%), were identified based on conidial morphology, cultural characteristics, and phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region, partial sequence of the β-tubulin gene, and the translation elongation factor 1-α. Pathogenicity tests showed that four species were pathogenic to leaves and stems of blueberry. Among them, P. clavispora (N. clavispora) was the most aggressive as the predominant species to cause both leaf spot and stem canker. P. trachicarpicola and P. chamaeropis were mainly isolated from leaves but also pathogenic to stems. P. adusta was only isolated from stems but also pathogenic to leaves. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of P. chamaeropis and P. adusta as pathogens causing leaf spots and stem canker on blueberry. The results provide helpful information in disease diagnosis and management of blueberry.

Micropropagation of Vaccinium corymbosum L.: An Alternative Procedure for the Production of Secondary Metabolites

In vitro culture has become a dependable approach for the mass production of plant material as the market for innovative plant-derived medicinal approaches has grown significantly. Furthermore, because it permits manipulation of biosynthetic routes to boost the production and accumulation of certain compounds, this technology has enormous potential for the manufacture of natural bioactive chemicals. As a result, the goal of this study was to develop an efficient micropropagation system for biomass production and to investigate the accumulation of bioactive compounds from Vaccinium corymbosum L., Duke and Hortblue Petite cultivars. Two in vitro plant tissue culture systems were used for shoots production: a solid medium (5 g/L Plant agar) and liquid medium (Plantform bioreactor). The culture medium used was Woddy Plant Medium (WPM) supplemented with two growth regulators: 0.5 mg/L and 1 mg/L zeatina (Z) and 5 mg/L N6-(2-Isopentenyl) adenine (2iP). The content of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and chlorophylls of the in vitro shoot extracts were examined via the HPLC-DAD-MS/MS technique. The results showed that cv. Hortblue Petite produced a higher amount of biomass compared with cv. Duke, on all variants of culture media in both systems (solid and liquid), while the shoots extract of the Duke variety in the liquid culture system (under all concentrations of growth regulators) had the highest content of total phenolic compounds (16,665.61 ± 424.93 μg/g). In the case of the lipophilic compounds analysed (chlorophylls and carotenoids), the solid medium reported the highest values, whereas media supplemented with 0.5 mg/L Z was proved to have the richest total content for both cultivars.

Mortiño (Vaccinium floribundum Kunth): An Underutilized Superplant from the Andes

Mortiño is a member of the Ericaceae family native to the Andes that has been used by local communities for centuries. This species has shown potential in the areas of medicine, agronomy, and green technology. We used a multidisciplinary approach to review aspects related to the ecology, horticulture, composition and potential biotechnological applications of mortiño. As interest in this species grows, care must be taken to identify opportunities that justify its sustainable use while emphasizing the development of local communities. Mapping the wide variety of potential uses and the current state of conservation and utilization of this berry will help researchers to better target mortiño’s potential.

Vaccinium Species (Ericaceae): From Chemical Composition to Bio-Functional Activities

The genus Vaccinium L. (Ericaceae) includes more than 450 species, which mainly grow in cooler areas of the northern hemisphere. Vaccinium species have been used in traditional medicine of different cultures and the berries are widely consumed as food. Indeed, Vaccinium supplement-based herbal medicine and functional food, mainly from V. myrtillus and V. macrocarpon, are used in Europe and North America. Biological studies support traditional uses since, for many Vaccinium components, important biological functions have been described, including antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic and endothelium protective activities. Vaccinium components, such as polyphenols, anthocyanins and flavonoids, are widely recognized as modulators of cellular pathways involved in pathological conditions, thus indicating that Vaccinium may be an important source of bioactive molecules. This review aims to better describe the bioactivity of Vaccinium species, focusing on anti-inflammatory and endothelial protective cellular pathways, modulated by their components, to better understand their importance for public health.

Assessment of lead tolerance on Glycine max (L.) Merr. at early growth stages

Lead (Pb) contamination of agricultural soils, and subsequently of crops, has been widely reported. Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) has been indicated as a plant that accumulates Pb, even in soils that do not exceed the maximum permissible levels. Considering the toxicity of this heavy metal, the aim of the present study was to assess different concentrations of Pb, from low to extremely high (0.25 mM, 1 mM, and 2.5 mM), in soybean seedlings and their tolerance by analyzing morpho-physiological parameters in hydroponic experiments. Soybean seedlings were exposed to control and Pb treatments during 8 days, coinciding with the early growth stages, and the following variables were analyzed: biomass, Pb content in roots, stems and leaves, photosynthetic efficiency, leaf area, biochemical response (antioxidant power, chlorophylls, malondialdehyde), and relative water content of leaves. Results showed that roots accumulated much more Pb than the other organs, with Pb accumulation in roots being saturated even at the lowest Pb concentration, which was reflected in root biomass. Moreover, absorption of culture solutions was lower in Pb treatments, which was also reflected in the lower leaf relative water content. Lead toxicity symptoms in leaves (chlorosis and dark spots, and a decrease of biomass and leaf area, chlorophyll content, and photosynthetic efficiency), and an increase of the oxidative defense system were associated only with the highest Pb concentration (2.5 mM). Our findings support the evidence of soybean as a species tolerant to Pb, showing the effects of toxicity at very high concentrations.

Genetic Diversity of Blueberry Genotypes Estimated by Antioxidant Properties and Molecular Markers

Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) have gained much attention worldwide because of their potential health benefits and economic importance. Genetic diversity was estimated in blueberry hybrids, wild clones and cultivars by their antioxidant efficacy, total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and express sequence tag–simple sequence repeat (SSR) (EST–SSR), genomic (G)–SSR and express sequence tag–polymerase chain reaction (EST–PCR) markers. Wide diversity existed among the genotypes for antioxidant properties, with the highest variation for DPPH radical scavenging activity (20-fold), followed by the contents of total flavonoids (16-fold) and phenolics (3.8-fold). Although a group of 11 hybrids generated the maximum diversity for antioxidant activity (15-fold), wild clones collected from Quebec, Canada, had the maximum variation for total phenolic (2.8-fold) and flavonoid contents (6.9-fold). Extensive genetic diversity was evident from Shannon’s index (0.34 for EST–SSRs, 0.29 for G–SSR, 0.26 for EST–PCR) and expected heterozygosity (0.23 for EST–SSR, 0.19 for G–SSR, 0.16 for EST–PCR). STRUCTURE analysis separated the genotypes into three groups, which were in agreement with principal coordinate and neighbour-joining analyses. Molecular variance suggested 19% variation among groups and 81% among genotypes within the groups. Clustering based on biochemical data and molecular analysis did not coincide, indicating a random distribution of loci in the blueberry genome, conferring antioxidant properties. However, the stepwise multiple regression analysis (SMRA) revealed that 17 EST–SSR, G–SSR and EST–PCR markers were associated with antioxidant properties. The study is valuable to breeding and germplasm conservation programs.

Insight into anti-oxidative carbohydrate polymers from medicinal plants: Structure-activity relationships, mechanism of actions and interactions with bovine serum albumin

Recently, research associated with natural anti-oxidants leads to the chemical characterization of many compounds possessing strong anti-oxidant activity. Among these anti-oxidants, naturally occurring carbohydrate polymers containing pectic arabinogalactans esterified with phenolic acids in monomeric and dimeric forms are noteworthy. The presence of highly branched arabinogalactan type II side chains and sugar linked phenolic acid residues have been resolved as important parameters. The anti-oxidant activity of these compounds depend on their ability to convert free radicals into stable by-products and themselves oxidized to more stable and less reactive resonance stabilized radicals. Moreover, these carbohydrate polymers form water soluble stable complexes with protein. Such findings support their applications in a diversity of fields including food industry and pharmacy. This review highlights experimental evidences supporting that the carbohydrate polymers containing phenolic polysaccharides may become promising drug candidate for the prevention of aging and age related diseases.

The Chemical and Biological Profiles of Leaves from Commercial Blueberry Varieties

Blueberries have seen an ascending production line boosted by World Health Organization (WHO) approvals for their contributions to a healthy diet and the evidence that they act against different diseases. This increase resulted in significant amounts of discarded leaves, which could be a valuable source of bioactive compounds. In the present study, ultrasound-assisted extraction technology was used to determine and compare the chemical and biological profiles of leaves from six commercial blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) varieties. Feruloylquinic acid was the major compound identified, ranging from 19.23 ± 0.18 mg/g (at the lowest level, registered in the Spartan variety) to 49.62 ± 0.41 mg/g (at the highest level, registered in the Nelson variety). Rutin was the second major compound identified, for which Toro, Nelson, and Elliot leaves registered the highest values, with 35.77 ± 0.19 mg/g, 32.50 ± 0.20 mg/g, and 31.53 ± 0.1 mg/g, respectively. Even though analogous polyphenols were detected in the six cultivars, their concentrations and amounts were different. The leaf extracts of the cultivars Toro, Elliot, and Nelson appear to be good sources of antioxidants, registering high percentage inhibitions of DPPH radicals, of 70.41%, 68.42%, and 58.69%, respectively. The blueberry leaf extracts had a strong antibacterial activity and a low antifungal capacity, and a low-to-moderate antimutagenic capacity towards Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 strains, with Toro leaf being the best candidate. All of these biological activities indicate health-related benefits, recommending them as suitable candidates for medical and pharmaceutical applications. The present paper adds significant knowledge to the field of blueberry leaves via chemical and biological profiles, supporting the ultrasound-assisted extraction technique as a useful and green method to provide alternative sources of bioactive compounds.

In Vitro Propagation and Variation of Antioxidant Properties in Micropropagated Vaccinium Berry Plants-A Review

The berry crops in genus Vacciniun L. are the richest sources of antioxidant metabolites which have high potential to reduce the incidence of several degenerative diseases. In vitro propagation or micropropagation has been attractive to researchers for its incredible potential for mass production of a selected genotype in a short time, all year round. Propagation techniques affect the antioxidant activity in fruits and leaves. Total antioxidant activity was higher in the fruit of in vitro propagated plants compare to the plants grown ex vivo. This review provides critical information for better understanding the micropropagation and conventional propagation methods, and their effects on antioxidant properties and morphological differentiation in Vaccinium species, and fills an existing gap in the literature.

Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, and Antiproliferative Activity of Mori Cortex Radicis Extracts

Mori Cortex Radicis (MCR) is a well-known Korean and Chinese folk medicine with anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmatic, and hypoglycemic activities. This study was aimed to evaluate the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, as well as intracellular antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of water and 70% (v/v) ethanol extracts of MCR. The antioxidant activities of MCR extracts were determined with diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2′-azinobis[3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic] scavenging activity assays. The suppressive activities of MCR extracts on the production of nitric oxide (NO*) and the expression of cytokines, c-Fos, activated p38-Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and Nuclear factor Kappa B (NF-κB) and splenocytes proliferation in lipopolysaccharide-treated macrophages were determined. Furthermore, this study demonstrated the effects of MCR on reactive oxygen species production in murine macrophages. Mori Cortex Radicis restored deoxyribonucleic acid damages at higher concentrations of the extracts and significantly suppressed free radicals and NO* production. In this study, MCR significantly restored inflammatory responses and intracellular antioxidant activities in murine macrophages (RAW 264.7), which anticipated that MCR could be used as a natural anti-inflammatory agent.

The Anti-Proliferative and Anti-Invasive Effect of Leaf Extracts of Blueberry Plants Treated with Methyl Jasmonate on Human Gastric Cancer In Vitro Is Related to Their Antioxidant Properties

Gastric cancer is the third main cause of cancerous tumors in humans in Chile. It is well-accepted that a diet rich in antioxidant plants could help in fighting cancer. Blueberry is a fruit crop with a high content of antioxidants. Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is a phytohormone involved in plant defenses under stress conditions. The exogenous application of MeJA can improve the antioxidant properties in plants. We studied in vitro and in vivo anticancer action on human gastric cancer (cell line AGS) and the antioxidant properties of extracts from blueberry plants untreated and treated with MeJA. The results demonstrated that leaf extracts displayed a higher inhibition of cancer cell viability as well as greater antioxidant properties compared to fruit extracts. Besides, MeJA applications to plants improved the antioxidant properties of leaf extracts (mainly anthocyanins), increasing their inhibition levels on cell viability and migration. It is noteworthy that leaf extract from MeJA-treated plants significantly decreased cancer cell migration and expression of gastric cancer-related proteins, mainly related to the mitogen-activating protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Interestingly, in all cases the anticancer and antioxidant properties of leaf extracts were strongly related. Despite highlighted outcomes, in vivo results did not indicate significant differences in Helicobacter pylori colonization nor inflammation levels in Mongolian gerbils unfed and fed with blueberry leaf extract. Our findings demonstrated that MeJA increased antioxidant compounds, mainly anthocyanins, and decreased the viability and migration capacity of AGS cells. In addition, leaf extracts from MeJA-treated plants were also able to decrease the expression of gastric cancer-related proteins. Our outcomes also revealed that the anthocyanin-rich fraction of blueberry leaf extracts showed higher in vitro antiproliferative and anti-invasive effects than the crude leaf extracts. However, it is still uncertain whether the leaf extracts rich in anthocyanins of blueberry plants are capable of exerting a chemopreventive or chemoprotective effect against gastric cancer on an in vivo model.

Phenolic Compounds from Five Ericaceae Species Leaves and Their Related Bioavailability and Health Benefits

Some species of the Ericaceae family have been intensively studied because of the beneficial health impact, known since ancient times, of their chemical components. Since most studies focus on the effects of fruit consumption, this review aims to highlight the phenolic components present in the leaves. For this purpose, five species from Ericaceae family (bilberry-Vaccinium myrtillus L., lingonberry-V. vitis-idaea L., bog bilberry-V. uliginosum L., blueberry-V. corymbosum L. and bearberry-Arctostapylos uva-ursi L.) were considered, four of which can be found in spontaneous flora. The chemical composition of the leaves revealed three major phenolic compounds: chlorogenic acid, quercetin and arbutin. The health promoting functions of these compounds, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that could have preventive effects for cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and obesity, have been exemplified by both in vitro and in vivo studies in this review. Furthermore, the importance of bioaccessibility and bioavailability of the phenolic compounds have been summarized. The findings highlight the fact that leaves of some Ericaceae species deserve increased attention and should be studied more profoundly for their biological activities, especially those from spontaneous flora.

Chemical, antimicrobial, and molecular characterization of mortiño (Vaccinium floribundum Kunth) fruits and leaves

Fruits and leaves of Vaccinium spp. are known for their high content of bioactive compounds, but the chemical and biological characteristics of mortiño (Vaccinium floribundum Kunth) have not been fully described. In this study, the levels of polyphenols, antioxidant capacity, anthocyanins, antimicrobial activity, and genetic variability were determined in mortiño plants. The Folin-Ciocalteu's, ABTS scavenging, pH differential, and well diffusion methods were used to evaluate the levels of polyphenols, antioxidant capacity, anthocyanins, and antimicrobial activity, respectively. The genetic variability was evaluated by sequencing of the matK and rbcl DNA regions. Polyphenol content was up to 229.81 mg gallic acid equivalents/100 g, the average antioxidant capacity was 11.01 mmol Trolox equivalents/100 g, and anthocyanin content was up to 1,095.39 mg/100 g. Mortiño extracts significantly inhibited the growth of Gram-negative bacteria including Burkholderia gladioli, Burkholderia cepacia, Salmonella Typhimurium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio vulnificus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomona aeruginosa, as well as Gram-positive bacteria such as Probionibacterium propionicum, Staphylococcus aureus, and Enterococcus faecalis showing greater inhibition halos than those produced by the antibiotic ampicillin. A polymorphic nucleotide was found in position 739 of the matK region. This study shows the potential of mortiño for the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Influence of Harvest Season and Cultivar on the Variation of Phenolic Compounds Composition and Antioxidant Properties in Vaccinium ashei Leaves

The effect of variation of harvest season and cultivar on the total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), HPLC-UV/DAD profile and antioxidant properties in Vaccinium ashei (Rabbiteye blueberry) leaves grown in Brazil was evaluated. The cultivars collected in December and March were Aliceblue, Powderblue, Climax, Bluegem and FloridaM. It was observed that leaves from March had the highest TPC values (222 ± 1 mg gallic acid equivalents/g to Aliceblue cultivar) and highest TFC values (49.8 ± 0.8 and 48.7 ± 0.7 µg rutin/g to Clímax and Powderblue cultivars, respectively). The chromatographic profile was quantitatively similar, however, the proportions of each compound were influenced by cultivar and harvest season. Chlorogenic acid and rutin were the main identified phenolic compounds, but chlorogenic acid was the most abundant in both harvest seasons. Antioxidant capacities values ranged from 5.80 ± 0.04 to 105 ± 2 µg/mL (DPPH) and 178 ± 5 to 431 ± 8 mmol Trolox/100 g (ORAC). The cultivar Bluegem by March had the highest values in both assays. The results indicate that the blueberry leaves from different cultivars and harvest seasons have different phenolic compounds content and different antioxidant capacities. In addition, the antioxidant properties demonstrated a high correlation with rutin content.

Making good use of the byproducts of cultivation: green synthesis and antibacterial effects of silver nanoparticles using the leaf extract of blueberry

In this study, we made an effort to use blueberry leaves extract as a reducing and a capping agent to biosynthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The successful formation of AgNPs was confirmed with UV-visible spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, their antimicrobial activities against four kinds of multi drug resistant clinical pathogens and aquatic pathogens were investigated. The results showed that as-prepared AgNPs exhibited broad-spectrum antibacterial activities. The antibacterial effects of the AgNPs based on the structural damage and DNA degradation of the tested bacteria were also studied. The green synthesis of AgNPs using blueberry leaf extract, which provided a new idea on the use of the byproducts of blueberry harvesting.

Chemical Characterization and Cytotoxic Activity of Blueberry Extracts (cv. Misty) Cultivated in Brazil

Vaccinium corymbosum (L.) varieties cultivation is relatively recent in Brazil, but its production has been intensified given its good adaptability to the Southern Brazil climate. Blueberries are a rich source of phenolic compounds and contain significant levels of anthocyanins, flavonols, chlorogenic acids, and procyanidins, which lead to different biological activities. Chemical identification of skin and whole hydroalcoholic blueberry extracts (ExtSB and ExtWB) revealed the presence of anthocyanins concentrated in the skin and others chemicals compounds as quercetin glycosides, proanthocyanins dimers, citric, and chlorogenic acid in the pulp. Selectivity for tumor cell lines (Hep-2, HeLa, HT-29) using ExtSB and ExtWB extracts was observed through MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay after 24 h of treatment when compared to nontumor cells (MRC-5). Morphological changes and late stages of apoptotic and necrosis process were seen in HT-29 cell line after ExtWB treatment, compared to nontumor cell line MRC-5. These results are in agreement with other studies that indicate the activity of compounds such as anthocyanins and other molecules found in Southern Highbush blueberry variety, attributed to promote beneficial effects on health that may respond as cytotoxic natural agent and contribute to cancer treatment.

Berry Leaves: An Alternative Source of Bioactive Natural Products of Nutritional and Medicinal Value

Berry fruits are recognized, worldwide, as “superfoods” due to the high content of bioactive natural products and the health benefits deriving from their consumption. Berry leaves are byproducts of berry cultivation; their traditional therapeutic use against several diseases, such as the common cold, inflammation, diabetes, and ocular dysfunction, has been almost forgotten nowadays. Nevertheless, the scientific interest regarding the leaf composition and beneficial properties grows, documenting that berry leaves may be considered an alternative source of bioactives. The main bioactive compounds in berry leaves are similar as in berry fruits, i.e., phenolic acids and esters, flavonols, anthocyanins, and procyanidins. The leaves are one of the richest sources of chlorogenic acid. In various studies, these secondary metabolites have demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective properties. This review focuses on the phytochemical composition of the leaves of the commonest berry species, i.e., blackcurrant, blackberry, raspberry, bilberry, blueberry, cranberry, and lingonberry leaves, and presents their traditional medicinal uses and their biological activities in vitro and in vivo.