Women feel more attractive before ovulation: evidence from a large-scale online diary study

Investigating cycle shifts in women's clothing style and grooming

In contrast to some non-human primate species, human females do not show overt cues to fertility. Previous research argued that women still show systematic changes in their appearance across their ovulatory cycle to enhance their mating success when fertile. We report five studies investigating whether women's clothing style and grooming behaviour change across the ovulatory cycle. All studies were large (with N = 157 in Study 1, N = 109 in Study 2, N = 257 in Studies 3-5), longitudinal studies with four testing sessions per participant. They involved salivary hormone samples and luteinizing hormone tests to validate conception risk estimates. Across all studies, our results suggest no compelling evidence for cycle shifts in clothing style and grooming. Rather, two studies suggest effects in the opposite direction as hypothesized, as women wore more skin-revealing clothes when non-fertile. One study suggests small effects of wearing necklaces more and eyeglasses less often when fertile. However, these effects were not robust across all studies. Our results are in line with other recent null replications and suggest that, if existent, cues to fertility might be even more subtle than previously assumed. We discuss the need for testing competing theories that explain the evolution of concealed ovulation.

Self-perceived Mate Value is Predicted by Biological and self-reported Indices of Health in Young Adults

Immunocompetence can influence an organism's reproductive fitness, and thus presumably their desirability as a mate (i.e., mate value). In humans, the link between immunocompetence and mate value has found circumstantial support by way of both expressed mate preferences for healthy partners, and via preferences for attractive phenotypes that are ostensibly linked to immune functioning. We examined whether a biological marker of immunocompetence, salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA), along with self-reported frequency and severity of symptoms of poor health predicted individuals' reported mate value and mating behavior in a sample of 691 young adults. Our measures of immunocompetence (sIgA and symptoms of poor health) correlated significantly with one another, suggesting sIgA is a viable marker of general immune function in young adults. We then examined the independent contributions of these variables to mate value, controlling for age, sex, and body mass index (BMI). Results showed that sIgA (positively) and poor health (negatively) predicted mate value, but not lifetime number of sex partners or current romantic relationship status. These findings suggest that those with better health and immune function report being more desirable as mating partners but support past research showing null links to reported mating behavior. Together, these findings suggest that more comprehensive work on links between immunocompetence and mating is required.

A Mid-Cycle Rise in Positive and Drop in Negative Moods among Healthy Young Women: A Pilot Study

Clinically oriented studies of mood as a function of the menstrual cycle mainly address the negative moods in the premenstrual phase of the cycle. However, a periovulatory increase in positive emotions and motivations related to reproduction has also been noted. Thus, it has been suggested that the drop in mood during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle might be a byproduct of elevated positive moods occurring mid-cycle. The aim of this prospective study was to compare both the positive and negative dimensions of mood across the menstrual cycle. A group of 60 healthy, normally cycling women assessed their mood throughout three phases of their menstrual cycles: the early follicular (low estradiol and progesterone), the late follicular (fertile phase; high estradiol, low progesterone) and the mid-luteal phase (high levels of both estradiol and progesterone). Repeated MANOVA evaluations showed a significant increase in positive (friendly, cheerful, focused, active) and a significant decrease in negative (anxious, depressed, fatigued, hostile) dimensions of mood mid-cycle, i.e., during the late follicular phase (η2 = 0.072−0.174, p < 0.05). Contrary to the widespread belief that negative moods are characteristic of the luteal phase (preceding the onset of the next cycle), the post hoc Bonferroni tests showed that none of the mood dimensions differed between the mid-luteal and early follicular phases of the cycle. The results held when controlling for relationship status and order of testing. This pattern of fluctuations is in accordance with the ovulatory-shift hypothesis, i.e., the notion that the emotions of attraction rise during a short window during which the conception is likely.

Women’s Intrasexual Competitiveness and Jealousy Across the Ovulatory Cycle: A Hormone-Based Study

Research on social status competition among women suggests that underlying hormonal shifts associated with the ovulatory cycle systematically drive alterations in preferences and behavior. Specifically, it is proposed that the fertile window, marked by heightened estradiol and lower progesterone levels, is related to increased psychological motivation for intrasexual social comparison, leading to increasing competitiveness and jealousy. In this pre-registered, longitudinal study, 257 women provided saliva samples for hormone assays, rated the attractiveness of other women, and self-reported intrasexual competitiveness and jealousy across four testing sessions. Multilevel analyses revealed no compelling evidence for (hormone-related) cycle shifts in intrasexual competitiveness, attractiveness ratings, or jealousy. Rather, women higher in intrasexual competitiveness seem to rate other women as more attractive in general. We discuss how our results contribute to a growing body of literature suggesting that women’s social attitudes and preferences are more stable and less hormonally influenced than previously assumed.

Fertility predicts self-development-oriented competitiveness in naturally cycling women but not hormonal contraceptive users

Objective

A growing body of research has begun investigating the relationship between hormones and female competitiveness. Many researchers have focused on the effect of the menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptives. Despite many attempts at understanding hormone-behavior associations, contradictory findings have made it difficult to determine the existence of true effects. The aim of the current research was to use a robust methodological design to investigate the effect of fertility probability on four competitive orientations in naturally cycling women and hormonal contraceptive users.

Methods

Using a longitudinal diary study with over 3,900 observations from 21 countries, we explore the effect of fertility probability on four self-report competitive orientations after controlling for menstruation: self-developmental competition, hyper competitiveness, competition avoidance, and lack of interest toward competition.

Results

Using Bayesian estimation for ordinal mixed models, we found that fertility probability was associated with an increase in self-development competitiveness amongst naturally cycling women but not hormonal contraceptive users. We also found weak evidence that hormonal contraceptive users show reduced interest in competing compared to naturally cycling women. There were no other robust effects of fertility or hormonal contraceptive use.

Conclusions

These results suggest that fertility probability is associated with increased fluctuations in self-development competitive motivation and that hormonal contraceptives interfere with this effect. This research contributes to the growing body of literature suggesting that hormonal contraceptives may influence psychology and behavior by disrupting evolved hormonal mechanisms.