Effect of type of TAG fatty acids on lutein and zeaxanthin bioavailability

Empowering veterinary clinical diagnosis in industrial poultry production by ambient mass spectrometry and chemiometrics: a new approach for precise poultry farming

Untargeted metabolomic profiling, by ambient mass spectrometry and chemometric tools, has made a dramatic impact on human disease detection. In a similar vein, this study attempted the translation of this clinical human disease experience to farmed poultry for precise veterinary diagnosis. As a proof of principle, in this diagnostic/prognostic study, direct analysis in real-time high resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) was used in an untargeted manner to analyze fresh tissues (abdominal fat, leg skin, liver, and leg muscle) of pigmented and non-pigmented broilers to investigate the causes of lack of pigmentation in an industrial poultry farm. Afterwards, statistical analysis was applied to the DART-HRMS data to retrieve the molecular features that codified for 2 broiler groups, that is, properly pigmented and non-pigmented broilers. Higher abundance of oxidized lipids, high abundance of oxidized bile derivatives, and lower levels of tocopherol isomers (Vitamin E) and retinol (Vitamin A) were captured in nonpigmented than in pigmented broilers. In addition, conventional rapid analyses were used: 1) color parameters of the tissues of pigmented and non-pigmented broilers were measured to rationalize the color differences in abdominal fat, leg skin and leg muscle, and 2) macronutrients were determined in broiler leg muscle, to capture a detailed picture of the pathology and exclude other possible causes. In this study, the DART-HRMS system performed well in retrieving valuable chemical information from broilers that explained the differences between the 2 groups of broilers in absorption of xanthophylls and the subsequent lack of proper broiler pigmentation in affected broilers. The results suggest this technology could be useful in providing near real-time feedback to aid in veterinary decision-making in poultry farming.

Digestive characteristics of astaxanthin oil in water emulsion stabilized by a casein-caffeic acid-glucose ternary conjugate

To overcome the barrier of poor oral bioavailability of astaxanthin, a stable oil-in-water emulsion was constructed using casein-caffeic acid-glucose ternary conjugates (CSC) to deliver astaxanthin, and its gastrointestinal behavior was evaluated in vitro with sodium caseinate (CSN) as a control. Results showed that, CSC-stabilized emulsion shower better resistance to the adverse conditions of the gastric environment than CSN-stabilized emulsion, and exhibited lower average particle size and aggregation (4972.33 nm, -5.93 mv) after simulated gastric digestion. Besides, after simulated intestinal digestion, the reducing capacity and astaxanthin transfer efficiency of CSC emulsion into the micellar phase were 686.74 μmol Trolox/100 mL and 26.2 %, which were 2.6 and 4.05-fold higher than that of CSN emulsion. The above results suggest that CSC can be used for better delivery of astaxanthin, which could be useful in designing foods such as functional beverages, pharmaceuticals and nutritional supplements for delivery of lipophilic bioactives.

Tracing the Bioaccessibility of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Fish during Cooking Treatment

The effect of cooking on the contents of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in foods has been widely studied, but whether cooking-induced structural and chemical modifications in foods affect the oral bioaccessibility of PFAS remains largely unknown. In this study, three kinds of fishes with different fat contents were selected, and the bioaccessibility of PFAS during cooking treatment (steaming and frying) was evaluated using in vitro gastrointestinal simulation with gastric lipase addition. The results showed that related to their molecular structures, the bioaccessibility of an individual PFAS varied greatly, ranging from 26.0 to 108.1%. Cooking can reduce the bioaccessibility of PFAS, and steaming is more effective than oil-frying; one of the possible reasons for this result is that the PFAS is trapped in protein aggregates after heat treatment. Fish lipids and cooking oil ingested with meals exert different effects on the bioaccessibility of PFAS, which may be related to the state of the ingested lipid/oil and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acids. Gastric lipase boosted the release of long-chain PFAS during in vitro digestion, indicating that the degree of lipolysis considerably influences the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic PFAS. Estimated weekly PFAS intakes were recalibrated using bioaccessibility data, enabling more accurate and reliable dietary exposure assessments.

Fate of Amadori compounds in processing and digestion of multi-ingredients tomato based sauces and their effect on other microconstituents

Amadori compounds (ACs), the first stable products of Maillard reaction, are detected in various products of fruits and vegetables, and show an antioxidant activity which can be related to beneficial effects in human health. In order to optimize the nutritional quality of a multi-ingredient tomato sauce (tomato puree - onion - olive oil - dried pepper), the fate of ACs during processing (drying, heating) and gastrointestinal digestion of a model meal was assessed as well as that of other microconstituents, i.e. carotenoids, phenolic compounds and capsaicinoids. The drying at 50 °C of fresh pepper induced the formation and accumulation of ACs after 6 days. During the heat treatment by microwave of multi-ingredient tomato sauce, Maillard reaction occurs in presence of dried pepper and the content in ACs in the tomato-based sauces increased (+33% to + 53%) depending of quantities of dried pepper added. The bioaccessibility of total ACs was 24-31% in duodenal phase and 18-22% in jejunal phase. Individual ACs have shown variable bioaccessibility, e.g. very high for Fru-Arg (50.8% to 71.3%), and very low for Fru-Met (1.8% to 2.2%). The kinetic monitoring of ACs in digestion medium showed that ACs are not stable (-46% in gastric phase, -49 % in intestinal phase) which indicated their potential degradation in the digestive tract. The presence of ACs in the multi-ingredients tomato sauces had no effect on the content of the other bioactive compounds monitored in the study and even promoted the bioaccessibility of total lycopene (+30%) but decreased the bioaccessibility of total phenolic compounds.

Emulsifying properties, in vitro digestive characteristics, and β-carotene bioaccessibility of mandarin peel pectin emulsions prepared with different carrier oil phases

Mandarin peel pectin (MPP) emulsions were prepared with different oil phase loadings with or without β-carotene, and their emulsifying characteristics, digestive properties and β-carotene bioaccessibility were investigated. Results revealed that all MPP emulsions exhibited good loading efficiency for β-carotene, while their apparent viscosity and interfacial pressure (π) of MPP emulsions increased significantly after the addition of β-carotene. Emulsification of MPP emulsions as well as digestibility were significantly dependent on the kind of oil. MPP emulsions prepared with long-chain triglycerides (LCT) oil (soybean, corn, and olive oil) exhibited higher volume average particle size (D_4,3), apparent viscosity, π values, and bioaccessibility of carotene compared to those prepared with medium-chain oils (MCT). MPP emulsions with LCT rich in monosaturated fatty acids (olive oil) had the highest β-carotene encapsulation efficiency, bioaccessibility, etc. than from other oils. This study provides a theoretical basis for the efficient encapsulation and high bioaccessibility of carotenoids with pectin emulsions.

Bioaccessibility of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in food and dust: Implication for more accurate risk assessment

Humans are exposed to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) mainly through oral exposure route, while little is known about their bioaccessibility (BC) in oral matrices. Here, the BC of 13 PFASs in simulated vegetable (VFs) and animal foods (AFs) as well as indoor dust was investigated using a physiology-based extraction test. The BC of PFASs in the AFs (78.5 ± 13.6 %) was distinctly higher than that in the VFs (60.6 ± 13.4 %), because high-saturated and long-chain fatty acids in the animal fat favored formation of more stable micelles. The BC of most long-chain PFASs was positively correlated with the protein content while negatively correlated with the carbohydrate content in the foods. The BC of polyfluoroalkyl phosphate diesters was negatively correlated with the lipid content. The BC of the very long-chain PFASs in the foods was 2.42-6.02 times higher than that in the dust, which might be attributed to their strong sequestration in dust. With the increase in bile salt concentration, the BC of PFASs in food increased and then remained constant, which was related to the changes in fatty acids and stability of the formed micelles. Comparing with the previous results obtained from animal study, the BC obtained in this study has the potential to predict PFAS bioavailability in food.

Dose-Response Relationship Between Oral Lutein Intake and Plasma Lutein Concentration: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Lutein was shown to provide health benefits for a few diseases. The dose-response relation of oral lutein intake in humans has rarely been reported. The objective is to investigate the dose-response relation between oral lutein intake and plasma lutein concentration in humans. Forty subjects were recruited from Qingdao University, China in 2014. The subjects were randomly divided into four groups: (1–3) consuming 10, 20, or 40 mg lutein by one, two, or four capsules of lutein A, respectively; (4) consuming 20 mg lutein by two capsules of lutein B (containing 280 mg n-3 fatty acid). After a single oral dose, plasma lutein concentrations were measured at 9-time points. The raise of plasma lutein concentration by a 40 mg dose was significantly higher than by a 10 or 20 mg dose. Plasma lutein concentrations were not significantly different between taking 20 mg lutein A and 20 mg lutein B. A dose-response relation was demonstrated between oral lutein administration and plasma lutein concentration. The dose-response relation was more pronounced among men. The current work provides a scientific basis for recommending a dietary intake level of lutein. Future work should validate the results in other ethnic and age groups.

Effects of dietary fats on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of in vitro studies and randomized controlled trials

CONTEXT

Dietary fats are one of the well-known stimulators of carotenoid absorption, but the effects of the quantity and the type of dietary fats on carotenoid absorption have not yet been studied systematically.

OBJECTIVE

This review aimed to analyze data from both in vitro studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to examine the effects of dietary fats on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic search of 5 databases (Scopus, PubMed, Embase, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library) was conducted.

STUDY SELECTION

In vitro studies and RCTs were selected according to the PICOS criteria and were reviewed independently by 2 investigators.

DATE EXTRACTION

Key study characteristics from the eligible in vitro studies and RCTs were extracted independently by 2 investigators using a standardized table.

RESULTS

A total of 27 in vitro studies and 12 RCTs were included. The meta-regression of in vitro studies showed that the bioaccessibility of carotenoids, except for lycopene, was positively associated with the concentration of dietary fats. The meta-analysis of RCTs showed that the bioavailability of carotenoids was enhanced when a higher quantity of dietary fats was co-consumed. Moreover, fats rich in unsaturated fatty acids resulted in greater improvement in carotenoid bioavailability (SMD 0.90; 95%CI, 0.69-1.11) as compared with fats rich in saturated fatty acids (SMD 0.27; 95%CI, 0.08-0.47).

CONCLUSIONS

Co-consuming dietary fats, particularly those rich in unsaturated fatty acids, with carotenoid-rich foods can improve the absorption of carotenoids.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration number CRD42020188539.

In vitro bioaccessibility of macular xanthophylls from commercial microalgal powders of Arthrospira platensis and Chlorella pyrenoidosa

The bioaccessibility of the major carotenoids present in two commercial microalgal supplements in powder form was investigated through a standardized in vitro digestion method. The dried biomass of Arthrospira platensis contained β-carotene (36.8 mg/100 g) and zeaxanthin (20.8 mg/100 g) as the main carotenoids as well as a high content of saturated fatty acids (61% of total fatty acids), whereas that of Chlorella pyrenoidosa was rich in lutein (37.8 mg/100 g) and had a high level of unsaturated fatty acids (65% of total fatty acids). In the case of the latter, lutein bioaccessibility was not statistically enhanced after the replacement of porcine bile extract with bovine bile extract in the in vitro digestion protocol and after the addition of coconut oil (17.8% as against to 19.2% and 19.2% vs. 18.5%, respectively). In contrast, the use of bovine bile extract along with co-digestion with coconut oil significantly enhanced the bioaccessibility of zeaxanthin from A. platensis, reaching the highest bioaccessibility of 42.8%.

Influence of nutrients on the bioaccessibility and transepithelial transport of polybrominated diphenyl ethers measured using an in vitro method and Caco-2 cell monolayers

Previous research has shown the absorption of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the human gastrointestinal tract, but limited attention has been given to the influence of nutrients on PBDE absorption from food matrices. We investigated the effects of nutrients (oil, starch, protein, and dietary fiber) on the absorption and transport of PBDEs in a Caco-2 cell model and bioaccessibility of PBDEs by an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion method. The results showed that the accumulation ratios of PBDE congeners in Caco-2 cells were higher in the nutrient addition groups (oil: 26.7-50.6%, starch: 27.0-58.7%, protein: 12.1-44.1%, and dietary fiber: 28.2-55.1%) than the control group (7.17-36.1%), whereas the transport ratios were lower (oil: 2.30-7.20%, starch: 1.55-9.15%, protein: 1.04-8.78%, and dietary fiber: 0.85-7.04%) than control group (3.78-11.1%). Additionally, the PBDE bioaccessibility could be increased by adding the nutrients, particularly oil and starch. This study clarified the differences in PBDE absorption in the presence of nutrients using the in vitro digestion and Caco-2 cell model. The findings showed that nutrients were an important factor that promoted PBDE absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, it is important to focus on a novel dietary strategy of food consumption with contaminant compounds to protect human health.

Antioxidant supplements in age-related macular degeneration: are they actually beneficial?

Age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) is one of the prominent causes of central visual loss in the older age group in the urbanized, industrialized world. In recent years, many epidemiological studies and clinical trials have evaluated the role of antioxidants and micronutrients to prevent the progression of ARMD. In this article, we review some of these major studies. In addition, we review the absorption and bioavailability and possible undesirable effects of these nutrients after ingestion. The role of genotypes and inappropriate use of these supplements are also discussed. From all the above evidence, we conclude that it may not be prudent to prescribe these formulations without a proper assessment of the individual's health and dietary status. The effectiveness of all the components in antioxidant formulations is controversial. Thus, these supplements should not be prescribed just for the purpose of providing patients some kind of therapy, which may give a false sense of mental satisfaction.

A D-optimal mixture design of tomato-based sauce formulations: effects of onion and EVOO on lycopene isomerization and bioaccessibility

A D-optimal mixture design was used to study the effects of onion and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) on lycopene Z-isomerization, lycopene diffusion into oil (expressed as a partition factor between tomato-based puree and oil) and in vitro bioaccessibility of lycopene isomers after thermal treatment of tomato-based puree consisting of tomato (75-100%), onion (0-20%) and EVOO (0-5%). A decrease of tomato puree could improve lycopene Z-isomerization, lycopene diffusion and lycopene bioaccessibility. The component interactions had an important influence on the Z-isomerization of lycopene, besides the linear mixtures of components. However, only linear mixtures of components appeared to have significant effects on the diffusion and bioaccessibility of lycopene, in which EVOO had the highest positive effect followed by onion. The bioaccessibility of lycopene isomers in every tomato-based sauce formulation decreased in the order: 13-Z-lycopene > 9-Z-lycopene > 5-Z-lycopene > all-E-lycopene. The bioaccessibility of total-Z-lycopene was at least 10 times higher than that of all-E-lycopene. Proportions of total-Z-lycopene were correlated positively with the partition factor and bioaccessibility of total-lycopene, with an r over 0.730 (p = 0.0031). Therefore, increased Z-lycopene proportions probably contributed to enhanced lycopene diffusion and bioaccessibility. The positive effects of components, especially onion, on total-lycopene diffusion and bioaccessibility were probably because the components increased the Z-isomerization of lycopene during heating of tomato-based puree.

In vitro digestion of complex foods: How microstructure influences food disintegration and micronutrient bioaccessibility

Digestion is a mechanical and chemical process that is only partly understood, and even less so for complex foods. In particular, the issue of the impact of food structure on the digestion process is still unresolved. In this study, the fate of four micronutrient-enriched foods with identical compositions but different microstructures (Custard, Pudding, Sponge cake, Biscuit) was investigated using the 3-phase in vitro model of human digestion developed by the INFOGEST network. Matrix disintegration and hydrolysis of macronutrients (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) were monitored during the three phases of digestion using biochemical techniques, size-exclusion chromatography, thin-layer chromatography and gas chromatography. Micronutrient release (vitamin B9 and lutein) was monitored using reverse-phase chromatography. Food structure did not greatly influence macronutrient hydrolysis, except for lipolysis that was four-times higher for Biscuit compared to Custard. However, the bioaccessibility of both micronutrients depended on the food structure and on the micronutrient. Vitamin B9 release was faster for Biscuit and Sponge cake during the gastric phase, whereas lutein release was higher for Custard during the intestinal step. Extensive statistical analysis highlighted the impact of food structure on the digestion process, with different digestion pathways depending on the food matrix. It also made it possible to characterise the gastric step as a predominantly macronutrient solubilisation phase, and the intestinal step as a predominantly hydrolysis phase.

Novel Processing Technologies as Compared to Thermal Treatment on the Bioaccessibility and Caco-2 Cell Uptake of Carotenoids from Tomato and Kale-Based Juices

This research aimed to measure the impact of novel food processing techniques, i.e., pulsed electric field (PEF) and ohmic heating (OH), on carotenoid bioaccessibility and Caco-2 cell uptake from tomato juice and high-pressure processing (HPP) and PEF on the same attributes from kale-based juices, as compared with raw (nonprocessed) and conventional thermally treated (TT) juices. Lycopene, β-carotene, and lutein were quantitated in juices and the micelle fraction using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-diode array detection and in Caco-2 cells using HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry. Tomato juice results were as follows: PEF increased lycopene bioaccessibility (1.5 ± 0.39%) by 150% (P = 0.01) but reduced β-carotene bioaccessibility (28 ± 6.2%) by 44% (P = 0.02), relative to raw juice. All processing methods increased lutein uptake. Kale-based juice results were as follows: TT and PEF degraded β-carotene and lutein in the juice. No difference in bioaccessibility or cell uptake was observed. Total delivery, i.e., the summation of bioaccessibility and cell uptake, of lycopene, β-carotene, and lutein was independent of type of processing. Taken together, PEF and OH enhanced total lycopene and lutein delivery from tomato juice to Caco-2 cells as well as TT, and may produce a more desirable product due to other factors (i.e., conservation of heat-labile micronutrients, fresher organoleptic profile). HPP best conserved the carotenoid content and color of kale-based juice and merits further consideration.

Zeaxanthin: Metabolism, Properties, and Antioxidant Protection of Eyes, Heart, Liver, and Skin

Zeaxanthin, a non-provitamin A carotenoid that belongs to the xanthophyll family, has been less studied than its isomer lutein. However, zeaxanthin has also been shown to have a number of beneficial effects for human health due to its ability to quench free radicals, exert antioxidant effects, as well as decrease inflammation. It is the purpose of this review to discuss the metabolism of zeaxanthin, including digestion, absorption, transport, and uptake by tissues, as well as the dietary or other factors which affect zeaxanthin bioavailability. In addition, this review also focuses on specific effects of this carotenoid on eye, skin, liver, and cardiovascular health. Data derived from human interventions, animal models of research, and in vitro and cell studies are discussed in this review.

Randomized controlled trial of a water-soluble formulation of lutein in humans

Lutein is poorly absorbed owing to their high hydrophobicity and crystallinity. This double-blind crossover trial involved eight healthy males who were administrated capsules containing either a lutein water-soluble formulation or a lutein oil suspension for 8 days. In the formulation group, plasma and erythrocytes lutein concentrations and baseline-corrected AUC were two-fold higher than those in the oil suspension group.

Effects of dietary fat source on lutein, zeaxanthin and total carotenoids content of the egg yolk in laying hens during the early laying period

1. The study was conducted to investigate the effects of different dietary levels of an unsaturated or saturated fat source and the effects of different dietary energy levels in laying hen diets on the carotenoid content of the egg yolk. 2. Seventy-two ISA Brown laying hens aged 22 weeks old were allocated, for a 10 week period, to three treatments: control diet (HE group) with a 3.4% supplemented fat containing 2.1% soybean and 1.3% palm oil as fat sources and a ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acid (u/s) of 3.33; a lowered energy diet with 2.4% supplemented fat containing 1.4% soybean and 1.0% palm oil and u/s of 3.41 (LE+high u/s); a lowered energy diet with 2.4% supplemented fat containing 0.5% soybean and 1.9% palm oil and a u/s of 2.39 (LE+low u/s). A marigold plant extract supplement was used as a source of lutein. 3. Performance parameters (feed consumption, feed conversion, body weight), egg production rate and egg quality parameters were similar between treatments. Dietary fat digestibility at the middle of the study period was not different. Egg yolk total fat content was similar in all treatments at the middle and at the end of the study period. 4. Lutein, zeaxanthin, cis-lutein and total carotenoids content were significantly lower in eggs produced from the LE+low u/s group compared to those from the HE and the LE+high u/s groups (P < 0.01 for all parameters). 5. It was concluded that feeding laying hens with a diet containing 1% less supplemented fat and a lower u/s ratio compared to a control diet and to a diet with 1% less supplemented fat with a higher u/s ratio resulted in a significant reduction of carotenoid expression in the egg yolk at the end of experimental period. Performance and egg quality parameters were not affected by treatments.

Nutrients for Prevention of Macular Degeneration and Eye-Related Diseases

The risk of macular degeneration can be reduced through the consumption of antioxidant-rich foods, supplements, and nutraceutical formulas. This review focuses on the antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals that have been reported for reducing the risk of macular degeneration and other eye-related diseases. Antioxidants including anthocyanins, carotenoids, flavonoids, and vitamins have been shown to reduce the risk of eye-related diseases. Anthocyanins extracted from berries are powerful antioxidants. Cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, and petunidin are anthocyanin aglycones detected in berries, currants, and other colored fruits and vegetables. β-Carotene, as well as xanthophyll lutein and zeaxanthin, have been reported to reduce the risk of macular degeneration. Flavonoids from plants help in the prevention of eye-related diseases through anti-inflammatory mechanisms. A combination of these antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals possess a synergistic effect on the prevention or risk reduction of macular degeneration. Formulas have been developed as dietary supplements to cater to the high demand from consumers and patients with eye problems. Many of the formulated dietary supplements that are sold in the market have been clinically proven for their efficacy to treat eye diseases. Although the bioactivities in the supplement capsules or tablets have been scientifically established for reducing risks of several diseases, which include macular degeneration and other eye-related diseases, knowledge on the right dosage, efficacy, and bioavailability of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals is important for consumers. The information may help them make the best decision in choosing the right dietary supplements and nutraceuticals following the evidence-based recommended dosages and reference intakes for improving general health and preventing eye-related diseases. This review covers the potential causal factors involved in eye diseases, clinically proven treatments, and controversial findings on the antioxidants in the prevention of macular degeneration. Future studies should consider multiethnic and multicenter trials for eliminating potential bias in research.

The fate of cellulose nanocrystal stabilised emulsions after simulated gastrointestinal digestion and exposure to intestinal mucosa

It is well recognised that the average UK diet does not contain sufficient fibre. However, the introduction of fibre is often at the detriment of the organoleptic properties of a food. In this study on the gastrointestinal fate of nanoparticles, we have used cellulose nano-crystals (CNCs) as Pickering stabilising agents in oil in water emulsions. These emulsions were found to be highly stable against coalescence. The CNC and control emulsions were then exposed to simulated upper gastrointestinal tract digestion and the results compared to those obtained from a conventional protein stabilised emulsion. Finally the digested emulsions were exposed to murine intestinal mucosa and lipid and bile absorption was monitored. Importantly, the results show that the CNCs were entrapped in the intestinal mucus layer and failed to reach the underlying epithelium. This entrapment may also have led to the reduced absorption of saturated lipids from the CNC stabilised emulsion versus the control emulsion. The results show the potential of CNCs as a safe and effective emulsifier.

Development of Oral Delivery Systems with Enhanced Antioxidant and Anticancer Activity: Coix Seed Oil and β-Carotene Coloaded Liposomes

Fortifying food and beverage products with combinations of bioactive agents is a major initiative within the food industry because of their potentially additive or even synergistic benefits for human health. Coix seed oil (CSO) has been reported to possess anticancer activity, whereas β-carotene (βC) is a natural antioxidant that may also exhibit anticancer activity. However, both of these bioactives are insoluble in water and have poor oral bioavailability. The aim of this study was to overcome these obstacles by encapsulating both βC and CSO into liposomes (L-βC-CSO). The effect of different combinations of these two bioactive agents on the physiochemical properties, stability, release, antioxidant activity, and anticancer activity of the liposomes was then determined. Increasing the CSO level decreased the βC entrapment efficiency, increased the particle size, reduced the polydispersity, and raised the magnitude of the surface potential of the bioactive-loaded liposomes. Moreover, the βC and CSO levels affected their orientation within the lipid bilayer, which also influences the physiochemical properties, stability, and in vitro release behavior of the system. Compared to liposomes containing single bioactive types, the combined systems exhibited higher bioavailability and increased anticancer and antioxidant activity. These results suggest that the combined bioactive-loaded liposomes could be an efficient formulation for potential applications in functional foods and supplements.

Enhancement of phytochemical bioaccessibility from plant-based foods using excipient emulsions: impact of lipid type on carotenoid solubilization from spinach

Effects of lipid type in excipient emulsions on the bioaccessibility of carotenoids (lutein and β-carotene) in spinach were studied using a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT).

Oral fast-dissolving films containing lutein nanocrystals for improved bioavailability: formulation development, in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Lutein is widely used as diet supplement for prevention of age-related macular degeneration. However, the application and efficacy of lutein in food and nutritional products has been hampered due to its poor solubility and low oral bioavailability. This study aimed to develop and evaluate the formulation of oral fast-dissolving film (OFDF) containing lutein nanocrystals for enhanced bioavailability and compliance. Lutein nanocrystals were prepared by anti-solvent precipitation method and then encapsulated into the films by solvent casting method. The formulation of OFDF was optimized by Box-Behnken Design (BBD) as follows: HPMC 2.05% (w/v), PEG 400 1.03% (w/v), Cremophor EL 0.43% (w/v). The obtained films exhibited uniform thickness of 35.64 ± 1.64 μm and drug content of 0.230 ± 0.003 mg/cm² and disintegrated rapidly in 29 ± 8 s. The nanocrystal-loaded films with reconstituted particle size of 377.9 nm showed better folding endurance and faster release rate in vitro than the conventional OFDFs with raw lutein. The microscope images, thermograms, and diffractograms indicated that lutein nanocrystals were highly dispersed into the films. After administrated to SD rats, t _max was decreased from 3 h for oral solution formulation to less than 0.8 h for OFDF formulations, and C _max increased from 150 ng/mL for solution to 350 ng/mL for conventional OFDF or 830 ng/mL for nanocrystal OFDF. The AUC _0-24h of conventional or nanocrystal OFDF was 1.37 or 2.08-fold higher than that of the oral solution, respectively. These results suggested that drug nanocrystal-loaded OFDF can be applied as a promising approach for enhanced bioavailability of poor soluble drugs like lutein.

Emulsion design for the delivery of β-carotene in complex food systems

β-Carotene has been widely investigated both in the industry and academia, due to its unique bioactive attributes as an antioxidant and pro-vitamin A. Many attempts were made to design delivery systems for β-carotene to improve its dispersant state and chemical stability, and finally to enhance the functionality. Different types of oil-in-water emulsions were proved to be effective delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive ingredients, and intensive studies were performed on β-carotene emulsions in the last decade. Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable, and emulsions with intact structures are preferable in delivering β-carotene during processing and storage. β-Carotene in emulsions with smaller particle size has poor stability, and protein-type emulsifiers and additional antioxidants are effective in protecting β-carotene from degradation. Recent development in the design of protein-polyphenol conjugates has provided a novel approach to improve the stability of β-carotene emulsions. When β-carotene is consumed, its bioaccessibility is highly influenced by the digestion of lipids, and β-carotene in smaller oil droplets containing long-chain fatty acids has a higher bioaccessibility. In order to better deliver β-carotene in complex food products, some novel emulsions with tailor-made structures have been developed, e.g., multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, Pickering emulsions. This review summarizes the updated understanding of emulsion-based delivery systems for β-carotene, and how emulsions can be better designed to fulfill the benefits of β-carotene in functional foods.

Biomarkers of carotenoid bioavailability

The use of biomarkers constitutes an essential tool to assess the bioavailability of carotenoids in humans. The present article aims to review several methodological, host-related and modulating factors relevant on assessing and interpreting carotenoid bioavailability. Markers for carotenoid bioavailability can be broadly divided into direct, biochemical or "analytical" markers and indirect, physiological or "functional" indicators. Analytical markers usually refer to biochemical indicators of intake and/or status (short and long term exposure) while functional measures may be interpreted in terms of cumulative exposure, biological effect (bioactivity) or modification of risk factors. Both types of markers display advantages and limitations but, in general, a relationship exists among the type of marker, the biological specimen needed and the time required for a change. Humans may absorb a wide range of carotenes and xanthophylls and many of them may be found in serum and tissues. However, under physiological conditions, the several classes of dietary carotenoids may behave unequally leading to a different systemic profile and, moreover, they can be selectively accumulated at target tissues. In addition, some carotenoids may be chemically and enzymatically modified generating different oxidative metabolites and apocarotenoids. Quantitatively, the biological response upon carotenoid intervention (assessed by analytical and functional markers) is highly variable but the use of large doses and long-term protocols may lead to saturation effects and the loss of linearity in the response. Also, despite carotenoid exposition is considered to be safe, markers of overexposure include clinical signs (i.e. carotenodermia, corneal rings and retinopathy) and biochemical indicators (hypercarotenemia, xanthophyll esters). Overall, both host-related and methodological factors may influence analytical and functional markers to assess carotenoid bioavailability although the different subclasses of carotenoids may not be equally affected.

Dietary calcium impairs tomato lycopene bioavailability in healthy humans

Lycopene (LYC) bioavailability is relatively low and highly variable, because of the influence of several factors. Recent in vitro data have suggested that dietary Ca can impair LYC micellarisation, but there is no evidence whether this can lead to decreased LYC absorption efficiency in humans. Our objective was to assess whether a nutritional dose of Ca impairs dietary LYC bioavailability and to study the mechanism(s) involved. First, in a randomised, two-way cross-over study, ten healthy adults consumed either a test meal that provided 19-mg (all-E)-LYC from tomato paste or the same meal plus 500-mg calcium carbonate as a supplement. Plasma LYC concentration was measured at regular time intervals over 7 h postprandially. In a second approach, an in vitro digestion model was used to assess the effect of increasing Ca doses on LYC micellarisation and on the size and zeta potential of the mixed micelles produced during digestion of a complex food matrix. LYC bioavailability was diminished by 83 % following the addition of Ca in the test meal. In vitro, Ca affected neither LYC micellarisation nor mixed micelle size but it decreased the absolute value of their charge by 39 %. In conclusion, a nutritional dose of Ca can impair dietary LYC bioavailability in healthy humans. This inhibition could be due to the fact that Ca diminishes the electrical charge of micelles. These results call for a thorough assessment of the effects of Ca, or other divalent minerals, on the bioavailability of other carotenoids and lipophilic micronutrients.

Are lutein, lycopene, and β-carotene lost through the digestive process?

The bioavailability of many carotenoids has been assessed, but little attention has been given to the metabolism of these antioxidant compounds during digestion.

Nutrigenomics, the Microbiome, and Gene-Environment Interactions: New Directions in Cardiovascular Disease Research, Prevention, and Treatment: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Cardiometabolic diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide and are strongly linked to both genetic and nutritional factors. The field of nutrigenomics encompasses multiple approaches aimed at understanding the effects of diet on health or disease development, including nutrigenetic studies investigating the relationship between genetic variants and diet in modulating cardiometabolic risk, as well as the effects of dietary components on multiple "omic" measures, including transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics, lipidomics, epigenetic modifications, and the microbiome. Here, we describe the current state of the field of nutrigenomics with respect to cardiometabolic disease research and outline a direction for the integration of multiple omics techniques in future nutrigenomic studies aimed at understanding mechanisms and developing new therapeutic options for cardiometabolic disease treatment and prevention.

The impact of early gut microbiota modulation on the risk of child disease: alert to accuracy in probiotic studies

The composition of the gut microbiota, and thus also the modification of the gut microbiota by specific probiotics or prebiotics early in life, may have an impact on the risk of disease in the child. Above the impact on gut microecology, probiotic effects have been attributed to restoration to normal of increased intestinal permeability, improvement of the intestine's immunological barrier functions, alleviation of the intestinal inflammatory response, and reduced generation of proinflammatory cytokines characteristic of local and systemic allergic inflammation. Recent demonstrations from experimental and clinical studies suggest that the gut microbiota is also involved in the control of body weight and energy metabolism, affecting the two main causes of obesity: energy acquisition and storage, and contributing to insulin resistance and the inflammatory state characterising obesity. Current research focuses both on characterising specific probiotic strains and on how the food matrix and the dietary content interacts with the most efficient probiotic strains. It is important to characterise each probiotic to species and strain level and to select strains with documented properties, the probiotic potential being strain-specific. As any proof of causality requires clinical intervention studies in humans in different populations, rigorous and detailed documentation will enhance reproducibility and circumvent confusion.

Absorption of Carotenoids and Mechanisms Involved in Their Health-Related Properties

Carotenoids participate in the normal metabolism and function of the human body. They are involved in the prevention of several diseases, especially those related to the inflammation syndrome. Their main mechanisms of action are associated to their potent antioxidant activity and capacity to regulate the expression of specific genes and proteins. Recent findings suggest that carotenoid metabolites may explain several processes where the participation of their parent carotenoids was unclear. The health benefits of carotenoids strongly depend on their absorption and transformation during gastrointestinal digestion. The estimation of the 'bioaccessibility' of carotenoids through in vitro models have made possible the evaluation of the effect of a large number of factors on key stages of carotenoid digestion and intestinal absorption. The bioaccessibility of these compounds allows us to have a clear idea of their potential bioavailability, a term that implicitly involves the biological activity of these compounds.

Effects of Lipids on in Vitro Release and Cellular Uptake of β-Carotene in Nanoemulsion-Based Delivery Systems

β-Carotene (BC) nanoemulsions were successfully prepared by microfluidization. BC micellarization was significantly affected by bile salts and pancreatin concentration. Positive and linear correlation was observed between BC release and bile salts concentration. Pancreatin facilitated BC's release in simulated digestion. Compared to the control (bulk oil) (4.6%), nanoemulsion delivery systems significantly improved the micellarization of BC (70.9%). The amount of BC partitioned into micelles was positively proportional to the length of carrier oils. Unsaturated fatty acid (UFA)-rich oils were better than saturated fatty acid (SFA)-rich oils in transferring BC (p < 0.05). No significant difference was observed between monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)-rich oils and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-rich oils (p > 0.05). A positive and linear relationship between the degree of lipolysis and the release of BC in vitro digestion was observed. Bile salts showed cytotoxicity to Caco-2 cells below 20 times dilution. BC uptake by Caco-2 cells was not affected by fatty acid (FA) compositions in micelles, but BC uptake was proportional to its concentration in the diluted micelle fraction. The results obtained are beneficial to encapsulate and deliver BC or other bioactive lipophilic carotenoids in a wide range of commercial products.

Bioaccessibility and digestive stability of carotenoids in cooked eggs studied using a dynamic in vitro gastrointestinal model

Among dietary carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin are known to protect against age-related macular degeneration, a leading cause of irreversible vision loss in the elderly. Egg yolk is rich in lutein and zeaxanthin, however, the effect of cooking and gastrointestinal digestion on yolk carotenoids is poorly understood. An in vitro dynamic gastrointestinal model (TIM-1) was used to investigate the digestive stability and bioaccessibility of carotenoids from boiled, fried, and scrambled eggs. Bioaccessibility but not digestive stability was significantly affected by the method of cooking. The main egg carotenoids, all-E-lutein and all-E-zeaxanthin, were stable during the digestion with average recoveries of 90 and 88%, respectively. No trans-cis isomerization of carotenoids was observed during digestion. Both all-E-lutein and all-E-zeaxanthin from scrambled eggs showed significantly lower bioaccessibility compared to boiled eggs. The results indicate that the bioaccessibility of egg carotenoids can be affected by different food preparation methods.