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Lizeth ANM, Vanessa BV, María Del Rocio TB, Margarita FC, Damián JM, Alfredo CO, Edgar CE, Placido RF. Hepatoprotective Effect Assessment of C-Phycocyanin on Hepatocellular Carcinoma Rat Model by Using Photoacoustic Spectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2024; 78:296-309. [PMID: 38224996 DOI: 10.1177/00037028231222508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary neoplasia of the liver with elevated mortality. Experimental treatment with antioxidants has a beneficial effect on the experimental models of HCC. Arthrospira maxima (spirulina) and its phycocyanin have antitumoral action on different tumoral cells. However, it is unknown whether phycocyanin is the responsible molecule for the antitumoral effect on HCC. Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) stands out among other spectroscopy techniques for its versatility of samples analyzed. This technique makes it possible to obtain the optical absorption spectrum of solid or liquid, dark or transparent samples. Previous studies report that assessing liver damage in rats produced by the modified resistant hepatocyte model (MRHM) is possible by analyzing their blood optical absorption spectrum. This study aimed to investigate, by PAS, the effect of phycocyanin obtained from spirulina on hepatic dysfunction. The optical absorption spectra analysis of the rat blood indicates the damage level induced by the MRHM group, being in concordance with the carried out biological conventional studies results, indicating an increase in the activity of hepatic enzymes, oxidative stress, Bax/Bcl2 ratio, cdk2, and AKT2 expression results, with a reduction in p53 expression. Also, PAS results suggest that phycocyanin decreases induced damage, due to the prevention of the Bax, AKT2, and p53 altered expression and the tumor progression in a HCC rat model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvarado-Noguez Margarita Lizeth
- Departamento de Física, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Blas-Valdivia Vanessa
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Thompson-Bonilla María Del Rocio
- Laboratorio de Medicina Genómica, Hospital Regional 1ro de Octubre, ISSSTE, Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Franco-Colín Margarita
- Laboratorio de Metabolismo I. Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Colonia Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero., Ciudad de México, México
| | - Jacinto-Méndez Damián
- Departamento de Física, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Cruz-Orea Alfredo
- Departamento de Física, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Cano-Europa Edgar
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Rojas-Franco Placido
- Laboratorio de Metabolismo I. Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Colonia Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos, Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero., Ciudad de México, México
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Zhang B, Fan C, Tan Q, Zhang Y, Jiang Q, Yu Q, Zhang B, Zheng K, Yan C. rCsHscB Derived from Clonorchis sinensis: A Carcinogenic Liver Fluke Ameliorates LPS-Induced Acute Hepatic Injury by Repression of Inflammation. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11121548. [PMID: 36558882 PMCID: PMC9782140 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11121548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sepsis-associated acute liver injury caused by spillovers of bacteria and endotoxins (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) into the liver remains a public health issue due to the lack of specific therapeutic approaches. Previous studies showed that the recombinant protein HscB (rCsHscB) of Clonorchis sinensis, a carcinogenic liver fluke, had an anti-inflammatory effect and could alleviate inflammatory diseases such as enteritis; however, whether it can prevent sepsis-associated acute liver injury induced by LPS is still unknown. In our current study, the therapeutic effects and the potential mechanisms of rCsHscB on LPS-induced acute liver injury were investigated both in vivo and in vitro. The data showed that rCsHscB prevented LPS-induced liver damage, as demonstrated by histopathological observation and hepatic damage markers (the activities of serum ALT and AST) in a murine model of sepsis-associated acute liver injury. rCsHscB also significantly reversed the high levels of serum IL-6 and MCP-1 induced by LPS. In addition, rCsHscB attenuated the production of LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-6 and TNF-α, in a macrophage cell line-RAW264.7, through possible mediation by the MAPK signaling pathway in vitro. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that rCsHscB derived from a fluke C. sinensis protects against sepsis-associated acute liver injury induced by LPS, which may be attributed to the inhibition of the MAPK signaling pathway. Our present study provides a potential therapeutic strategy for sepsis-associated acute liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Department of Clinical Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Chunyang Fan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Department of Clinical Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Qi Tan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Department of Clinical Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Yuzhao Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Qing Jiang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Department of Clinical Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Qian Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Beibei Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Department of Clinical Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Kuiyang Zheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Department of Clinical Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Chao Yan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Department of Clinical Medicine, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
- Correspondence:
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The Effect of Germanium-Loaded Hydroxyapatite Biomaterials on Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Growth. Cells 2022; 11:cells11192993. [PMID: 36230954 PMCID: PMC9563598 DOI: 10.3390/cells11192993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxyapatite (HA) is a hard mineral component of mineralized tissues, mainly composed of calcium and phosphate. Due to its bioavailability, HA is potentially used for the repair and regeneration of mineralized tissues. For this purpose, the properties of HA are significantly improved by adding natural and synthetic materials. In this sense, the germanium (Ge) mineral was loaded in HA biomaterial by cold isostatic pressure for the first time and characterization and biocompatibility using bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) were investigated. The addition of Ge at 5% improved the solubility (3.32%), stiffness (18.34 MPa), water holding (31.27%) and biodegradation (21.87%) properties of HA, compared to control. Compared to all composite biomaterials, the drug-releasing behavior of HA-3% Ge was higher at pH 1 and 3 and the maximum drug release was obtained at pH 7 and 9 with HA-5% Ge biomaterials. Among the different mediums tested, the DMEM-medium showed a higher drug release rate, especially at 60 min. HA-Ge biomaterials showed better protein adhesion and apatite layer formation, which ultimately proves the compatibility in BM-MSCs culture. Except for higher concentrations of HA (5 and 10 mg/mL), the different concentrations of Ge and HA and wells coated with 1% of HA-1% Ge had higher BM-MSCs growth than control. All these findings concluded that the fabricated HA biomaterials loaded with Ge could be the potential biomaterial for culturing mammalian cells towards mineralized tissue repair and regeneration.
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Potential of germanium-based compounds in coronavirus infection. ACTA PHARMACEUTICA (ZAGREB, CROATIA) 2022; 72:245-258. [PMID: 36651511 DOI: 10.2478/acph-2022-0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The first germanium compounds which exhibited immunomodulatory and antiviral effects were sesquioxane-type germanates. To date, more than a dozen compounds containing germanium have been synthesized and are being actively studied. They include germanium carboxylates and citrates, complexes of germanium with resveratrol, daphnetin, mangiferin, chrysin, quercetin, ascorbic and nicotinic acids, amino acids, gamma-lactones, germanium-containing spirulina, yeast and others. Germanium-based compounds have shown the ability to influence the replication of various DNA/RNA viruses, stimulate the body's natural resistance, prevent the development of metabolic intoxication of various origin, increase the efficacy of vaccines, and prevent the development of excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which plays a decisive role in the development of inflammatory response caused by a viral infection. It seems reasonable to say that germanium-based complex compounds effectively contribute to the preservation of high--energy bonds in the form of ATP, optimize the activity of metabolic processes by re-oxygenation, and exhibit antimicrobial activity. The purpose of this review is to summarize the pharmacological potential of various germanium-based compounds studied nowadays, taking into account their mechanisms of action, and to analyze their prospects in the development of integrated approaches in the prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Lysimachiae Herba Inhibits Inflammatory Reactions and Improves Lipopolysaccharide/D-Galactosamine-Induced Hepatic Injury. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10091387. [PMID: 34573019 PMCID: PMC8471683 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10091387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects of Lysimachiae Herba ethanolic extract (LHE) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages and in a LPS/D-galactosamine (GalN)-induced acute hepatitis mouse model. Then, the production of inflammatory mediators and the activation of related pathways in macrophages were explored. Finally, we assessed the serum aminotransferase levels and the expression of inflammatory/antioxidant molecules in liver tissues in mice. Results revealed that LHE treatment significantly inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Molecular data showed that LHE remarkably increased the activities of the antioxidant pathway and inhibited the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase as well as the transcriptional activity of nuclear factor-κB induced by LPS. Furthermore, it prevented acute liver damage caused by LPS/D-GalN-induced hepatitis by inhibiting aminotransferase levels and histopathological changes in mice. Moreover, treatment with LHE significantly inhibited the activation of inflammatory pathways and increased the expression of antioxidant molecules including heme oxygenase-1/Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2. In conclusion, LHE has potent anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects in LPS-stimulated macrophages and the LPS/D-GalN-induced acute hepatitis mouse model. Thus, it can be a treatment option for inflammation, hepatitis, and liver injury.
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Ge M, Zong M, Xu D, Chen Z, Yang J, Yao H, Wei C, Chen Y, Lin H, Shi J. Freestanding germanene nanosheets for rapid degradation and photothermal conversion. MATERIALS TODAY NANO 2021; 15:100119. [DOI: doi.org/10.1016/j.mtnano.2021.100119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
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Rojas-Franco P, Franco-Colín M, Camargo MEM, Carmona MME, Ortíz-Butrón MDRE, Blas-Valdivia V, Cano-Europa E. Phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin of Arthrospira maxima ( Spirulina) reduce apoptosis promoters and glomerular dysfunction in mercury-related acute kidney injury. TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH AND APPLICATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/2397847318805070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Arthrospira maxima ( Spirulina) is considered a nutraceutical or functional food because it provides health benefits and it is used as nephroprotector because it contains nucleophilic compounds as phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin that prevent oxidative stress and cellular damage process. Also, it is known that inorganic mercury is bioaccumulated and exerted kidney toxicity. Despite the nephroprotective effect of Spirulina and its components, there is not enough information about the effect of them on renal function as well as the apoptosis process inhibition. This work aimed to investigate whether phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin of Spirulina can improve HgCl2-related glomerular and tubular renal dysfunction as well as the Bax, Bcl2, and effectors caspases alterations. Male mice were administrated with Spirulina, phycobiliproteins or phycocyanin 30 min before 5 mg/Kg HgCl2 administration. The nutraceuticals were administrated for the next 5 days. Then, the mice were euthanized. The renal function, caspases 3 and 9 activities, as well as Bax and Bcl2 expression were evaluated. Spirulina and its components prevent HgCl2-related apoptosis induction and glomerular dysfunction. We concluded that phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin of Spirulina reduce glomerular damage but not the tubular dysfunction in a mercury-related acute kidney injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Placido Rojas-Franco
- Laboratorio de Metabolismo, Departamento de Fisiología, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Delegación Gustavo Madero, México
| | - Margarita Franco-Colín
- Laboratorio de Metabolismo, Departamento de Fisiología, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Delegación Gustavo Madero, México
| | - María Estela Meléndez Camargo
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Hepática y Renal, Departamento de Farmacia, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Delegación Gustavo Madero, México
| | - María Mirian Estévez Carmona
- Laboratorio de Toxicología Hepática y Renal, Departamento de Farmacia, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Delegación Gustavo Madero, México
| | - María del Rocío Elizabeth Ortíz-Butrón
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Delegación Gustavo Madero, México
| | - Vanessa Blas-Valdivia
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Delegación Gustavo Madero, México
| | - Edgar Cano-Europa
- Laboratorio de Metabolismo, Departamento de Fisiología, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Delegación Gustavo Madero, México
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Liu X, Wang T, Liu X, Cai L, Qi J, Zhang P, Li Y. Biochanin A protects lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine-induced acute liver injury in mice by activating the Nrf2 pathway and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Int Immunopharmacol 2016; 38:324-31. [PMID: 27344638 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Biochanin A, an isoflavone existed in red clover and peanuts, has been reported to possess a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. However, the protective effects and mechanism of biochanin A on liver injury have not been reported. In this study, acute liver injury was induced by intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and d-galactosamine (D-GalN). Biochanin A was administrated 1h prior to LPS/D-GalN challenge. Serum ALT, AST, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels, hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA), GPx, SOD, and Catalase contents, tissue histology, IL-1β, TNF-α, NLRP3, and Nrf2 expression were detected. The results showed that serum ALT, AST, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels and hepatic MDA content increased after LPS/GalN treatment. These changes were attenuated by biochanin A. Meanwhile, biochanin A dose-dependently up-regulated the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1. Biochanin A also inhibited hepatic IL-1β and TNF-α expression in a dose-dependent manner. Biochanin A did not inhibit LPS/D-GalN-induced hepatic NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1 expression. However, the interaction of NLRP3 with ASC and caspase-1 were inhibited by biochanin A. In addition, LPS/D-GalN-induced up-regulation of thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) and interaction between TXNIP and NLRP3 were also inhibited by biochanin A. In conclusion, biochanin A protected against LPS/GalN-induced liver injury by activating the Nrf2 pathway and inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingkai Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreas Surgery, The First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
| | - Tuo Wang
- Department of Hospital Administration of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Xueshibojie Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Lu Cai
- Kosair Children's Hospital Research Institute, The Department of Pediatrics of the University of Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Jun Qi
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreas Surgery, The First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreas Surgery, The First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, KY 40202, USA
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Ahmad A, Raish M, Ganaie MA, Ahmad SR, Mohsin K, Al-Jenoobi FI, Al-Mohizea AM, Alkharfy KM. Hepatoprotective effect of Commiphora myrrha against d-GalN/LPS-induced hepatic injury in a rat model through attenuation of pro inflammatory cytokines and related genes. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2015; 53:1759-1767. [PMID: 25864920 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2015.1005754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Commiphora myrrha (Burseraceae), a shrub resembling a small tree, has been used for several centuries for the treatment of various diseases. OBJECTIVE This study investigates the hepatoprotective activity of C. myrrha ethanol extract against d-galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide (d-GalN/LPS)-induced acute hepatic injury in an animal model. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats were pretreated with ethanolic extract C. myrrha (250 and 500 mg/kg; p.o.) for 7 d prior to the induction of an acute phase response by d-GalN/LPS. Animals were sacrificed 24 h after d-GalN/LPS (800 mg/kg and 50 µg/kg i.p.) administration for the biochemical and histological analyses. RESULTS The administration of d-GalN/LPS increased plasma aminotransferases (174.47 ± 4.5761 and 260.96 ± 1.9839 µkat/l) and total bilirubin levels (1.012 ± 0.0288 mg/dl), which were attenuated by C. myrrha treatment. Hepatic lipid peroxidation activity and nitric oxide content also increased, while the antioxidant activity measured by GSH (0.76 nmol/g protein), SOD (81.91 U/mg protein), and CAT (15.78 U/mg protein) was reduced. Commiphora myrrha provided significant restoration of GSH (0.815 nmol/gm protein), SOD (140.57 U/mg protein), and CAT (27.02 U/mg protein) levels. Furthermore, the acute phase response elicited by d-GalN/LPS administration enhanced mRNA expressions of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, iNOS-2, and HO-1, which were ameliorated by C. myrrha treatment. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION These findings indicate that C. myrrha considerably reduces the oxidative stress of d-GalN/LPS-induced hepatic injury via multiple pathways including adown regulation of inflammatory mediators and cytokines. Such a property might be sufficient to combat cellular damage caused by various conditions that resemble fulminant hepatitis and could be of a potential clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajaz Ahmad
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University , Riyadh , Saudi Arabia
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