Curcumin attenuates insulin resistance and hepatic lipid accumulation in a rat model of intra-uterine growth restriction through insulin signalling pathway and sterol regulatory element binding proteins

Glucocorticoids and intrauterine programming of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Accumulating epidemiological and experimental evidence indicates that nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has an intrauterine origin. Fetuses exposed to adverse prenatal environments (e.g., maternal malnutrition and xenobiotic exposure) are more susceptible to developing NAFLD after birth. Glucocorticoids are crucial triggers of the developmental programming of fetal-origin diseases. Adverse intrauterine environments often lead to fetal overexposure to maternally derived glucocorticoids, which can program fetal hepatic lipid metabolism through epigenetic modifications. Adverse intrauterine environments program the offspring's glucocorticoid-insulin-like growth factor 1 (GC-IGF1) axis, which contributes to postnatal catch-up growth and disturbs glucose and lipid metabolism. These glucocorticoid-driven programming alterations increase susceptibility to NAFLD in the offspring. Notably, after delivery, offspring often face an environment distinct from their in utero life. The mismatch between the intrauterine and postnatal environments can serve as a postnatal hit that further disturbs the programmed endocrine axes, accelerating the onset of NAFLD. In this review, we summarize the current epidemiological and experimental evidence demonstrating that NAFLD has an intrauterine origin and discuss the underlying intrauterine programming mechanisms, focusing on the role of overexposure to maternally derived glucocorticoids. We also briefly discuss potential early life interventions that may be beneficial against fetal-originated NAFLD.

Common pregnancy complications and polyphenols intake: an overview

During pregnancy, the body undergoes a great amount of changes in order to support a healthy developing fetus. In this context, maternal dietary supplementation is widely encouraged to provide adequate nutrition for the newborn. In the past few years, studies have emerged highlighting the benefits of polyphenols intake during pregnancy. Indeed, despite differences among reports, such as experimental model, polyphenol employed, dosage and regimen of administration, there is no doubt that the ingestion of these molecules has a protective effect in relation to three pregnancy-associated diseases or conditions: preeclampsia, gestational diabetes and fetal growth restriction. In this review, we describe the effects of different polyphenols and polyphenol-rich extracts or juices on the main outcomes of these common pregnancy-associated complications, obtained in human, animal and in vitro studies. Therefore, this work provides a critical analysis of the literature, and a summary of evidences, from which future research using polyphenols can be designed and evaluated.

Effect of artemisinin on improving islet function in rats fed with maternal high-fat diet

BACKGROUND

Maternal high-fat diet (HFD) is a detrimental factor in developing glucose intolerance, obesity, and islet dysfunction. However, the effect of artemisinin on maternal HFD and whether it is related to the alterations of islet function is seldom studied since artemisinin treatments not only attenuate insulin resistance (IR) and restore islet ß cell function in Diabetes mellitus type 2.

METHODS

Female rats were randomly fed a HFD (45% kcal from fat), HFD + artemisinin, or a regular chow diet (RCD) before pregnancy and during gestation. Glucose metabolism and the β cell phenotypes were assessed.

RESULTS

Maternal HFD increased islet load in female rats, proliferation of pancreatic β cells, increased insulinogen, and decreased insulin secretion response to high glucose stimulation with delayed insulin release, increased fasting glucose, and glucose area under the curve compared with the general diet group. HFD inhibited expression of Foxo1 and PAX6 in female rats. Under the effect of both HFD and pregnancy, islet load was further increased, insulinogen was further increased, and fasting insulin level and fasting glucose were higher than RCD fed general-pregnancy group. ALDH1a3 transdifferentiation and PAX6, Foxo1, and PDX1 expression were increased in islets of high-fat pregnant rats. When adding artemisinin in HFD treated pregnant rats, islet function was significantly improved.

CONCLUSIONS

Intervention with artemisinin in maternal HFD resulted in reduced islet size, decreased number of β-cells and improved islet microcirculation, insulin processing shear process, decreased insulinogen/insulin ratio, and restored islet function through increased expression of PC1/3.

Going Up Inflame: Reviewing the Underexplored Role of Inflammatory Programming in Stress-Induced Intrauterine Growth Restricted Livestock

The impact of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) on health in humans is well-recognized. It is the second leading cause of perinatal mortality worldwide, and it is associated with deficits in metabolism and muscle growth that increase lifelong risk for hypertension, obesity, hyperlipidemia, and type 2 diabetes. Comparatively, the barrier that IUGR imposes on livestock production is less recognized by the industry. Meat animals born with low birthweight due to IUGR are beset with greater early death loss, inefficient growth, and reduced carcass merit. These animals exhibit poor feed-to-gain ratios, less lean mass, and greater fat deposition, which increase production costs and decrease value. Ultimately, this reduces the amount of meat produced by each animal and threatens the economic sustainability of livestock industries. Intrauterine growth restriction is most commonly the result of fetal programming responses to placental insufficiency, but the exact mechanisms by which this occurs are not well-understood. In uncompromised pregnancies, inflammatory cytokines are produced at modest rates by placental and fetal tissues and play an important role in fetal development. However, unfavorable intrauterine conditions can cause cytokine activity to be excessive during critical windows of fetal development. Our recent evidence indicates that this impacts developmental programming of muscle growth and metabolism and contributes to the IUGR phenotype. In this review, we outline the role of inflammatory cytokine activity in the development of normal and IUGR phenotypes. We also highlight the contributions of sheep and other animal models in identifying mechanisms for IUGR pathologies.

The transcription factors CREBH, PPARa, and FOXO1 as critical hepatic mediators of diet-induced metabolic dysregulation

The liver is a critical mediator of lipid and/or glucose homeostasis and is a primary organ involved in dynamic changes during feeding and fasting. Additionally, hepatic-centric pathways are prone to dysregulation during pathophysiological states including metabolic syndrome (MetS) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Omics platforms and GWAS have elucidated genes related to increased risk of developing MetS and related disorders, but mutations in these metabolism-related genes are rare and cannot fully explain the increasing prevalence of MetS-related pathologies worldwide. Complex interactions between diet, lifestyle, environmental factors, and genetic predisposition jointly determine inter-individual variability of disease risk. Given the complexity of these interactions, researchers have focused on master regulators of metabolic responses incorporating and mediating the impact of multiple environmental cues. Transcription factors are DNA binding, terminal executors of signaling pathways that modulate the cellular responses to complex metabolic stimuli and are related to the control of hepatic lipid and glucose homeostasis. Among numerous hepatic transcription factors involved in regulating metabolism, three emerge as key players in transducing nutrient sensing, which are dysregulated in MetS-related perturbations in both clinical and preclinical studies: cAMP Responsive Element Binding Protein 3 Like 3 (CREB3L3), Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor Alpha (PPAR), and Forkhead Box O1 (FOXO1). Additionally, these three transcription factors appear to be amenable to dietary and/or nutrient-based therapies, being potential targets of nutritional therapy. In this review we aim to describe the activation, regulation, and impact of these transcription factors in the context of metabolic homeostasis. We also summarize their perspectives in MetS and nutritional therapies.

Effect of curcumin on the non-alcoholic steatohepatitis via inhibiting the M1 polarization of macrophages

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a global medical problem and macrophages' activation is closely related to the pathogenesis of NASH. Curcumin is a polyphenol from turmeric with significant anti-inflammatory activity.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of present study was to observe the effect of curcumin on macrophages' activation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in NASH.

METHODS

Hematoxylin and eosin and TUNEL staining were used to observe the hepatic function. RT-PCR was conducted to evaluate the hepatic mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Flow cytometry was adopted to detect the M1 polarization of macrophages. The RAW264.7 macrophage was pretreated with different doses of curcumin, and then lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) were given to activate the M1 macrophage. The activation ratio of M1 macrophage was observed by flow cytometry, and IL-1β and TNF-α expression was detected by RT-PCR and ELISA.

RESULTS

After treatment with curcumin, the activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), the mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-1β, and M1 polarization of macrophages were significantly decreased. Hematoxylin and eosin and TUNEL staining showed that inflammation and apoptosis in the liver were improved. What is more, curcumin can effectively inhibit M1 macrophage activation induced by lipopolysaccharide and IFN-γ and reduce the secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

Curcumin can effectively improve NASH and reduce hepatic cell necrosis by inhibiting the M1 polarization of macrophages and the secretion of inflammatory factors.

Curcumin inhibits classical swine fever virus replication by interfering with lipid metabolism

Although previous reports have shown that Curcumin inhibits many viruses, including some important members of different genera of Flaviviridae family (Japanese encephalitis virus, dengue virus and hepatitis C virus), the antiviral activity of curcumin against Classical swine fever virus (CSFV), which belongs to Pestivirus genus, is still unclear. In this study, we found that curcumin inhibited CSFV replication in a dose-dependent manner, but had no effect on virus adsorption and entry. Furthermore, the results showed that curcumin inhibited the expression of FASN, one of the key enzymes of fatty acid synthesis pathway, thereby, causing the reduction of the production of LDs upon infection. To this end, we detected transcription factor 6 (ATF6), the key factor of regulating lipid metabolism along with other related molecules (CHOP and GPR78) and found that curcumin significantly impaired the gene synthesis of ATF6, while CSFV infection promoted ATF6 expression. Therefore, it is confirmed that curcumin inhibited CSFV replication by interfere lipid metabolism. In addition, our subsequent studies found that curcumin played an antiviral role by promoting the innate immune independent of NF-κB signaling pathway. Taken together, our finding highlights that curcumin is a potential candidate drug against CSFV for controlling CSF.

The Multifaced Actions of Curcumin in Pregnancy Outcome

Curcumin, also known as diferuloylmethane, is the main polyphenolic substance present in the rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. This plant showed many beneficial effects and has been used since ancient times for both food and pharmaceutical purposes. Due to its pleiotropic functions, curcumin consumption in the human diet has become very common thanks also to the fact that this natural compound is considered quite safe as it does not have serious side effects. Its functions as an anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-toxicant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-diabetic compound are already known and widely demonstrated. There are numerous studies concerning its effects on various human pathologies including cancer, diabetes and arthritis while the studies on curcumin during pregnancy have been performed only in animal models. Data concerning the role of curcumin as anti-inflammatory compound suggest a possible use of curcumin in managing pregnancy complications such as Preeclampsia (PE), Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM), Fetal Growth Restriction (FGR), PreTerm Birth (PTB), and exposure to toxic agents and pathogens. The aim of this review is to present data to support the possible use of curcumin in clinical trials on human gestation complications.

The Therapeutic Efficacy of Curcumin vs. Metformin in Modulating the Gut Microbiota in NAFLD Rats: A Comparative Study

Structural disruption of gut microbiota is closely related to the occurrence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Previous research has demonstrated that both curcumin (CUR) and metformin (MET) have a therapeutic effect against NAFLD and play a role in modulating the gut microbiota. However, there is a lack of direct comparison between the two medications in terms of the therapeutic efficacy and the regulatory effect on gut microbiota. In this study, we administered either CUR or MET to rats with high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity to observe changes in body parameters, biochemical parameters, liver, and ileum pathology and gut microbiota, and used next generation sequencing and multivariate analysis to evaluate the structural changes of gut microbiota in a NAFLD rat model before and after CUR and MET intervention. It was found that both CUR and MET attenuated hepatic ectopic fat deposition, alleviated inflammatory factors, and improved intestinal barrier integrity in HFD-fed rats. More importantly, CUR and MET reduced the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and reverted the composition of the HFD-disrupted gut microbiota. Both CUR and MET treatments effectively modified the gut microbiome, enriched the abundance of beneficial bacteria and reduced opportunistic pathogens in obese rats. The abundance of Butyricicoccus was increased while the abundance of Dorea was decreased in HFD + CUR group. Besides, some beneficial bacteria such as Prevotella were increased in MET-treated animals. Spearman’s correlation analysis showed that Helicobacter, Akkermansia, Desulfovibrio, Romboutsia, Corynebacterium, Lactobacillus, Ruminococcaceae_unclassified, Lachnospiraceae_unclassified, and Clostridiales_unclassified showed significantly positive correlations with TG, TC, LDL-C, GLU, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, and negative correlations with HDL-C (both p < 0.05). However, Prevotella and Stomatobaculum showed an opposite trend. In summary, CUR and MET showed similar effects in alleviating hepatic steatosis, improving intestinal barrier integrity and modulating gut microbiota in HFD-induced obesity rats, and therefore may prove to be a novel adjunctive therapy for NAFLD.

Whether or Not the Effects of Curcuma longa Supplementation Are Associated with Physical Exercises in T1DM and T2DM: A Systematic Review

Diabetes mellitus is one of the most prevalent chronic diseases in the world; one of its main characteristics is chronic hyperglycemia. Pharmacotherapy and other alternatives such as regular exercise are among the therapeutic methods used to control this pathology and participate in glycemic control, as well as the ingestion of plant extracts with antioxidant effects. Among the different plants used for this purpose, curcumin has potential to be used to attenuate the hyperglycemic condition triggered by diabetes mellitus (DM). Some prior studies suggest that this plant has antioxidant and hypoglycemic potential. This review aims to evaluate the antioxidant and hypoglycemic potential of curcumin supplementation in Type 1 DM (T1DM) and Type 2 DM (T2DM). The search considered articles published between 2010 and 2019 in English and Portuguese, and a theoretical survey of relevant information was conducted in the main databases of scientific publications, including the Virtual Health Library and its indexed databases, PubMed, LILACS (Latin American and Caribbean Literature on Health Sciences-Health Information for Latin America and the Caribbean-BIREME/PAHO/WHO), and Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO). The associated use of turmeric and physical exercise has demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic effects, suggesting that these could be used as potential therapeutic methods to improve the quality of life and survival of diabetic patients.

Curcumin: Could This Compound Be Useful in Pregnancy and Pregnancy-Related Complications?

Curcumin, the main polyphenol contained in turmeric root (Curcuma longa), has played a significant role in medicine for centuries. The growing interest in plant-derived substances has led to increased consumption of them also in pregnancy. The pleiotropic and multi-targeting actions of curcumin have made it very attractive as a health-promoting compound. In spite of the beneficial effects observed in various chronic diseases in humans, limited and fragmentary information is currently available about curcumin’s effects on pregnancy and pregnancy-related complications. It is known that immune-metabolic alterations occurring during pregnancy have consequences on both maternal and fetal tissues, leading to short- and long-term complications. The reported anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitoxicant, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, antiapoptotic, antiangiogenic, anti-hypertensive, and antidiabetic properties of curcumin appear to be encouraging, not only for the management of pregnancy-related disorders, including gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), preeclampsia (PE), depression, preterm birth, and fetal growth disorders but also to contrast damage induced by natural and chemical toxic agents. The current review summarizes the latest data, mostly obtained from animal models and in vitro studies, on the impact of curcumin on the molecular mechanisms involved in pregnancy pathophysiology, with the aim to shed light on the possible beneficial and/or adverse effects of curcumin on pregnancy outcomes.

Effects of resistance training and turmeric supplementation on reactive species marker stress in diabetic rats

Background

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia and excessive generation of reactive oxygen species caused by autoimmune destruction of beta-cells in the pancreas. Among the antioxidant compounds, Curcuma longa (CL) has potential antioxidant effects and may improve hyperglycemia in uncontrolled T1DM/TD1, as well as prevent its complications (higher costs for the maintenance of health per patient, functional disability, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic damage). In addition to the use of compounds to attenuate the effects triggered by diabetes, physical exercise is also essential for glycemic control and the maintenance of skeletal muscles. Our objective is to evaluate the effects of CL supplementation associated with moderate- to high-intensity resistance training on the parameters of body weight recovery, glycemic control, reactive species markers, and tissue damage in rats with T1DM/TD1.

Methods

Forty male 3-month-old Wistar rats (200–250 g) with alloxan-induced T1DM were divided into 4 groups (n = 7–10): sedentary diabetics (DC); diabetic rats that underwent a 4-week resistance training protocol (TD); CL-supplemented diabetic rats (200 mg/kg body weight, 3x a week) (SD); and supplemented diabetic rats under the same conditions as above and submitted to training (TSD). Body weight, blood glucose, and the following biochemical markers were analyzed: lipid profile, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), uric acid, creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS).

Results

Compared to the DC group, the TD group showed body weight gain (↑7.99%, p = 0.0153) and attenuated glycemia (↓23.14%, p = 0.0008) and total cholesterol (↓31.72%, p ≤ 0.0041) associated with diminished reactive species markers in pancreatic (↓45.53%, p < 0.0001) and cardiac tissues (↓51.85%, p < 0.0001). In addition, compared to DC, TSD promoted body weight recovery (↑15.44%, p ≤ 0.0001); attenuated glycemia (↓42.40%, p ≤ 0.0001), triglycerides (↓39.96%, p ≤ 0.001), and total cholesterol (↓28.61%, p ≤ 0.05); and attenuated the reactive species markers in the serum (↓26.92%, p ≤ 0.01), pancreas (↓46.22%, p ≤ 0.0001), cardiac (↓55.33%, p ≤ 0.001), and skeletal muscle (↓42.27%, p ≤ 0.001) tissues caused by T1DM.

Conclusion

Resistance training associated (and/or not) with the use of Curcuma longa attenuated weight loss, the hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects, reactive species markers, and T1DM-induced tissue injury.

Nanocurcumin improved glucose metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: a comparison study with Gliclazide

In the present study, the biochemical effect of nanocurcumin (nanoCUR) compared with Gliclazide (GLZ) on the diabetic rats was studied. Forty male albino rats (Sprague Dawley) weighted 110 ± 20 g were used. Rats were randomly separated into two groups. Control, received no treatment. Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic groups take 5 ml/kg of STZ in normal saline daily for 30 days, further divided into diabetic non-treated group, did not receive any treatment: diabetic group treated by nanoCUR, received 15 mg/kg/day of nanoCUR orally for 30 days; diabetic group treated by GLZ, received 2 mg/kg/day of GLZ for 30 days. The mean body weights of all rats were registered and serum samples were collected for determination of fasting blood glucose (FBG), insulin concentration, liver glucokinase (GK), and glycogen synthase (GS) activities. Liver tissues were collected for determination of mRNA expression of insulin (INS), insulin receptor A (IRA), glucokinase (GK), and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2). The results revealed a significant reduction of body weight in diabetic rats, with no significant differences in nanoCUR and GLZ groups. There was a decline in FBG levels and significant elevation of INS levels, GK, and GS activities in diabetic rats received nanoCUR and GLZ. mRNA expression of INS, IRA, GK, and GLUT2 significantly upregulated in diabetic rats received nanoCUR and GLZ. The amazing observation was a non-significant difference in all measured parameters between nanoCUR and GLZ groups. In conclusion, nanoCUR is able to improve cellular uptake of glucose, the hepatic insulin signaling, and insulin sensitivity in diabetic rats. Its effect was similar to standard hypoglycemic drug (GLZ).

[Effect of epigallocatechin-3-gallate on liver lipid metabolism in rats with intrauterine growth restriction and related mechanism]

OBJECTIVE

To study the effect of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) on liver lipid metabolism in rats with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and related mechanism.

METHODS

A rat model of IUGR was established by food restriction during entire pregnancy, and then the rats were randomly divided into an IUGR group and an EGCG group (n=8 each). The rats in the EGCG group were fed with water containing EGCG from after weaning to 10 weeks. Eight pup rats born from the pregnant maternal rats without food restriction were used as the control group. At the age of 13 weeks, body weight was measured. Blood and liver tissue samples were collected to measure fasting total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), free fatty acid (FFA), fasting plasma glucose (FPG), fasting insulin (FINS), and liver lipids. Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and adipose insulin resistance (adipo-IR) were calculated. Pathological sections of the liver were observed and quantitative real-time PCR was used to measure the mRNA expression of related genes in the liver.

RESULTS

At the age of 13 weeks, there was no significant difference in body weight between groups (P=0.067). There were significant differences between groups in FPG, FFA, FINS, HOMA-IR, and adipo-IR (P<0.05). There were no significant differences in the serum levels of TC and TG between groups (P>0.05), while the IUGR group had significantly higher levels of TC and TG in the liver than the EGCG group (P<0.05). Oil red staining showed that the IUGR group had a significant increase in hepatic lipid accumulation, while the EGCG group had certain improvement after EGCG treatment. PCR results suggested that compared with the control group, the IUGR group had significant reductions in the mRNA expression of Ampk and Adipor1 and a significant increase in the mRNA expression of Srebf1 (P<0.05), while EGCG increased the mRNA expression of Ampk and reduced the mRNA expression of Srebf1, with no significant differences in the two indices between the EGCG and control groups (P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Early EGCG intervention can down-regulate the de novo synthesis of fatty acids through the Ampk/Srebf1 signaling pathway and reduce hepatic lipid accumulation in IUGR rats by improving insulin resistance of hepatocytes.

Dietary Leucine Supplementation Restores Serum Glucose Levels, and Modifying Hepatic Gene Expression Related to the Insulin Signal Pathway in IUGR Piglets

Simple Summary

Intrauterine malnutrition may compromise the size and structure of fetal organs and tissues, which leads to lower birth weight and a slower rate of growth after weaning. Intrauterine growth restriction/retardation (IUGR) impairs pancreas function, resulting in the decreased glucose levels in serum. Leucine, one of branched chain amino acids, is an essential amino acid and the substrate of protein synthesis. Leucine also acts as a major regulator of hormone signal transduction, like insulin. Dietary branched chain amino acids or leucine have beneficial effects on the glucose metabolism and glycogen synthesis of muscle. Leucine supplementation improves the insulin sensitivity in liver and muscle and then influences the systemic glucose homeostasis. However, it is still unclear whether leucine supplementation would alter insulin sensitivity in IUGR neonatal piglets. Our results showed that dietary leucine supplementation restored serum glucose concentrations, increased insulin and creatinine concentrations, and enhanced protein kinase adenosine monophosphate-activated γ 3-subunit and glucose transporter type 2 expression. These findings suggest that leucine might play a positive role in hepatic lipid metabolism and glucose metabolism in IUGR.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effects of leucine with different levels on the insulin resistance in intrauterine growth restriction/retardation (IUGR) piglets. Thirty-two weaned piglets were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial design and four treatments (n = 8) were as follow: (1) normal weaned piglets fed a basal diet (CONT), (2) IUGR weaned piglets fed a basal diet (IUGR), (3) normal weaned piglets fed a basal diet with the addition of 0.35% l-leucine (C-LEU), and (4) IUGR fed a basal diet with the addition of 0.35% l-leucine (I-LEU) for a 21-days trial. The results showed that compared to the IUGR group, the I-LEU group had higher final body weight and body weight gain, higher serum glucose concentrations, and higher serum insulin concentrations (p < 0.05). The gene expression of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase p110 gamma, protein kinase adenosine monophosphate-activated γ 3-subunit, glycogen synthase kinase-3 alpha, and glucose transporter type 2 were increased in the I-LEU group as compared to the IUGR group (p < 0.05). It was concluded that dietary leucine supplementation restored serum glucose concentrations, increased insulin and creatinine concentrations, and enhanced protein kinase adenosine monophosphate-activated γ 3-subunit and glucose transporter type 2 expression, suggesting that leucine might play a positive role in hepatic lipid metabolism and glucose metabolism in IUGR.