Defective autophagy and autophagy activators in myasthenia gravis: a rare entity and unusual scenario

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) that results from autoantibodies against nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAchRs) at NMJs. These autoantibodies are mainly originated from autoreactive B cells that bind and destroy nAchRs at NMJs preventing nerve impulses from activating the end-plates of skeletal muscle. Indeed, immune dysregulation plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of MG. Autoreactive B cells are increased in MG due to the defect in the central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms. As well, autoreactive T cells are augmented in MG due to the diversion of regulatory T (Treg) cells or a defect in thymic anergy leading to T cell-mediated autoimmunity. Furthermore, macroautophagy/autophagy, which is a conserved cellular catabolic process, plays a critical role in autoimmune diseases by regulating antigen presentation, survival of immune cells and cytokine-mediated inflammation. Abnormal autophagic flux is associated with different autoimmune disorders. Autophagy regulates the connection between innate and adaptive immune responses by controlling the production of cytokines and survival of Tregs. As autophagy is involved in autoimmune disorders, it may play a major role in the pathogenesis of MG. Therefore, this mini-review demonstrates the potential role of autophagy and autophagy activators in MG.Abbreviations: Ach, acetylcholine; Breg, regulatory B; IgG, immunoglobulin G; MG, myasthenia gravis; NMJ, neuromuscular junction; ROS, reactive oxygen species; Treg, regulatory T; Ubl, ubiquitin-like.

Chia seeds ameliorate cardiac disease risk factors via alleviating oxidative stress and inflammation in rats fed high-fat diet

Obesity upsurges the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, primarily heart failure and coronary heart disease. Chia seeds have a high concentration of dietary fiber and increased concentrations of anti-inflammatoryand antioxidant compounds. They are used for weight loss plus enhancing blood glucose and lipid profile. The current perspective was commenced to examine the protective influence of chia seeds ingestion on cardiovascular disease risk factors in high-fat diet-fed rats. Forty male albino rats (with an initial body weight of 180-200 g) were used in this study. Rats were randomly and equally divided into 4 groups: Group I was the control group and group II was a control group with chia seeds supplementation. Group III was a high-fat diet group (HFD) that received HFD for 10 weeks and group IV was fed on HFD plus chia seeds for 10 weeks. In all groups Echocardiographic measurements were performed, initial and final BMI, serum glucose, AC/TC ratio, lipid profile, insulin (with a computed HOMA-IR), creatinine phosphokinase-muscle/brain (CPK-MB), CRP, and cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and MAP were estimated. Whole heart weight (WHW) was calculated, and then WHW/body weight (BW) ratio was estimated. Eventually, a histopathological picture of cardiac tissues was performed to assess the changes in the structure of the heart under Haematoxylin and Eosin and Crossmon's trichrome stain. Ingestion of a high diet for 10 weeks induced a clear elevation in BMI, AC/ TC, insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, CRP, CPK-MB, and cTnI in all HFD groups. Moreover, there was a significant increase in MAP, left ventricular end diastolic diameter (LVEDD), and left ventricular end systolic diameter (LVESD). Furthermore, histological cardiac examination showed structural alteration of the normal structure of the heart tissue with an increase in collagen deposition. Also, the Bcl-2 expression in the heart muscle was significantly lower, but Bax expression was significantly higher. Chia seeds ingestion combined with HFD noticeably ameliorated the previously-recorded biochemical biomarkers, hemodynamic and echocardiography measures, and histopathological changes. Outcomes of this report reveal that obesity is a hazard factor for cardiovascular disease and chia seeds could be a good candidate for cardiovascular system protection.

Liposome Nanocarriers Based on γ Oryzanol: Preparation, Characterization, and In Vivo Assessment of Toxicity and Antioxidant Activity

The present study aimed to develop and characterize liposome nanocarriers based on γ oryzanol and evaluate their potential in vitro and in vivo toxicity and antioxidant effects. The liposomes were physicochemically characterized using various techniques, including dynamic light scattering (DLS) for size and polydispersity index (PDI) measurements and ζ-potential analysis. The in vitro toxicity assessments were performed using hemolysis and MTT assays on the HS5 cell line. In vivo, acute oral toxicity was evaluated by using LD50 assays in mice. Additionally, antioxidant activity was assessed through biochemical analysis of serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels and liver tissue catalase, malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione (GSH) levels. The results revealed that the liposomes exhibited a uniform and spherical morphology with suitable physicochemical properties for drug delivery applications. The in vitro cytotoxicity and hemolysis assays and the in vivo LD50 experiment indicated the potential safety of γ oryzanol liposomes, especially at lower concentrations. In addition, the assessment of liver enzymes, i.e., ALT and AST, and the antioxidant markers further revealed the safety of the formulation, particularly for the liver as a highly sensitive soft organ. Overall, the liposome nanocarriers based on γ oryzanol were successfully formulated and expressed potential safety, supporting their application for the purposes of drug delivery and therapeutic interventions, particularly for hepatocellular and antioxidant therapies; however, further investigations for preclinical and clinical studies could be the future prospects for liposome nanocarriers based on γ oryzanol to explore the safety and efficacy of these nanocarriers in various disease models and clinical settings.

Extremely efficient aerogels of graphene oxide/graphene oxide nanoribbons/sodium alginate for uranium removal from wastewater solution

Waste-water pollution by radioactive elements such as uranium has emerged as a major issue that might seriously harm human health. Graphene oxide, graphene oxide nanoribbons, and sodium alginate nanocomposite aerogels (GO/GONRs/SA) were combined to create a novel nanocomposite using a modified Hummer's process and freeze-drying as an efficient adsorbent. Batch studies were conducted to determine the adsorption of uranium (VI) by aerogel. Aerogels composed of (GO/GONRs/SA) were used as an effective adsorbent for the removal of U (VI) from aqueous solution. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to describe the structure, morphologies, and characteristics of (GO/GONRs/SA) aerogels. The initial concentration of uranium (VI) and other environmental factors on U (VI) adsorption were investigated, period of contact, pH, and temperature. A pseudo-second-order kinetic model can be employed to characterize the kinetics of U (VI) adsorption onto aerogels. The Langmuir model could be applied to understand the adsorption isotherm, and the maximum adsorption capacity was 929.16 mg/g. The adsorption reaction is endothermic and occurs spontaneously.

GC-MS Analysis of Bioactive Compounds Extracted from Plant Rhazya stricta Using Various Solvents

Worldwide, human beings have traditionally employed many folkloric herbal resources as complementary and alternative remedies, and these remedies have played a pivotal role in modern medicines for many decades, as scientists have used them to develop drugs. We studied the effects of employing solvents with varying polarity on the yields of phytochemical components extracted from the plant Rhazya stricta. We used chloroform-methanol (1:1), methanol, ethanol, diethyl ether, and ethyl acetate as extraction solvents. The results showed that the efficiencies of the solvents at extracting phytochemical compounds were in this order: chloroform-methanol < ethanol < methanol < diethyl ether < ethyl acetate extract. The chloroform-methanol extract produced the highest concentration of phenolic and flavonoid contents among the five solvents tested (13.3 mg GAE/g DM and 5.43 CE/g DM). The yields of the extracted phytochemical compounds ranged from 47.55 to 6.05%. The results revealed that the properties of the extraction solvents considerably impacted the extraction yield and the phytochemical components of the R. stricta extract. Furthermore, compared with the other solvents, the chloroform-methanol extraction led to the highest yield (47.55%) and to more phytochemical substances being extracted. The aim of this study is to investigate the phytochemical compounds extracted from R. stricta with different solvents that have different polarities.

ZnO-chlorogenic acid nanostructured complex inhibits Covid-19 pathogenesis and increases hydroxychloroquine efficacy

Objective

The study purpose was to compare the anti- novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) property of chlorogenic acid (CGA) and Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NP) with the new valid synthesized complex of ZnO /CGA-NPs.

Methods

The facile mixing method was utilized to prepare ZnO/CGA-NPs. The in vitro effect of different ZnO/CGA-NPs concentrations on papain-like protease (PL^pro) and spike protein- receptor-binding domain (RBD) was measured by ELISA technique. The compounds effects on SARS-CoV2 were determined on viral entry, replication, and assembly by using plaque reduction assay, qPCR, and ELISA techniques. Their individual effects or mixed with hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) on erythrocytes (RBCs) and leukocytes (WBCs) were evaluated by routine cell culture technique. Finally, turbidity and agar well diffusion assays were done to evaluate their antimicrobial properties against Escherichia. coli, klebsila pneumonia, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans.

Results

The results confirmed that the uniformly dispersed ZnO-NPs were converted to aggregated form of ZnO/CGA-NPs upon the addition of CGA. The inhibitory concentration 50 (IC₅₀) of ZnO /CGA-NPs against RBD, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and PL^pro were 1647.7, 323.3 µg/mL and 38.7 µg/mL, respectively. Also, it inhibited E-gene, RdRp gene, E-protein, and spike protein with an IC₅₀ of 0.11, 0.13, 0.48, and 0.37 µg/mL, respectively. It acted as an antimicrobial against all tested organisms with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 26 µg/mL. Finally, ZnO/CGA-NPs Complex (0.1 IC₅₀) prevented the cytotoxic effect of HCQ on RBCs and WBC by 92.3 and 90 %, respectively.

Conclusion

ZnO/CGA-NPs Complex can be considered as a new anti- severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) compound.

Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Citrus limon Zest Extract: Characterization and Evaluation of Their Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties

The current work concentrated on the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) through the use of aqueous Citruslimon zest extract, optimizing the different experimental factors required for the formation and stability of AgNPs. The preparation of nanoparticles was confirmed by the observation of the color change of the mixture of silver nitrate, after the addition of the plant extract, from yellow to a reddish-brown colloidal suspension and was established by detecting the surface plasmon resonance band at 535.5 nm, utilizing UV-Visible analysis. The optimum conditions were found to be 1 mM of silver nitrate concentration, a 1:9 ratio extract of the mixture, and a 4 h incubation period. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectrum indicated that the phytochemicals compounds present in Citrus limon zest extract had a fundamental effect on the production of AgNPs as a bio-reducing agent. The morphology, size, and elemental composition of AgNPs were investigated by zeta potential (ZP), dynamic light scattering (DLS), SEM, EDX, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis, which showed crystalline spherical silver nanoparticles. In addition, the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of this bioactive silver nanoparticle were also investigated. The AgNPs showed excellent antibacterial activity against one Gram-negative pathogens bacteria, Escherichia coli, and one Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, as well as antifungal activity against Candida albicans. The obtained results indicate that the antioxidant activity of this nanoparticle is significant. This bioactive silver nanoparticle can be used in biomedical and pharmacological fields.

Silica Nanoparticle Acute Toxicity on Male Rattus norvegicus Domestica: Ethological Behavior, Hematological Disorders, Biochemical Analyses, Hepato-Renal Function, and Antioxidant-Immune Response

With extensive production and various applications of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs), there is a controversy regarding the ecotoxicological impacts of SiNPs. Therefore, the current study was aimed to assess the acute toxicity of silica nanoparticles in male Rattus norvegicus domestica after 24 and 96 h. Hematological, serum biochemical, stress biomarker, and immune-antioxidant parameters were addressed. Chemical composition, crystal structure, and the particle shape and morphology of SiNPs were investigated using XRD, FTIR, BET, UV-Vis, and SEM, while TEM was used to estimate the average size distribution of particles. For the exposure experiment, 48 male rats were divided into four groups (12 rat/group) and gavaged daily with different levels of zero (control), 5, 10, and 20 mg of SiNPs corresponding to zero, 31.25, 62.5, and 125 mg per kg of body weight. Sampling was carried out after 24 and 96 h. Relative to the control group, the exposure to SiNPs induced clear behavioral changes such as inactivity, lethargy, aggressiveness, and screaming. In a dose-dependent manner, the behavior scores recorded the highest values. Pairwise comparisons with the control demonstrated a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in hematological and immunological biomarkers [lysozymes and alternative complement activity (ACH50)] with a concomitant reduction in the antioxidant enzymes [catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD)] in all exposed groups to SiNPs. On the contrary, there was a noticeable increase in biochemical parameters (glucose, cortisol, creatinine, urea, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), total protein, and albumin) and hepato-renal indicators, including alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), of all SiNP-exposed groups. It was observed that SiNPs induced acute toxicity, either after 24 h or 96 h, post-exposure of rats to SiNPs evidenced by ethological changes, hepato-renal dysfunction, hyperlipemia, and severe suppression in hematological, protein, stress, and immune-antioxidant biomarkers reflecting an impaired physiological status. The obtained outcomes create a foundation for future research to consider the acute toxicity of nanoparticles to preserve human health and sustain the environment.

Osteoblast-activating peptide exhibits a specific distribution pattern in mouse ovary and may regulate ovarian steroids and local calcium levels

Osteoblast-activating peptide (OBAP) is a novel protein affecting osteoblast proliferation and differentiation, but its ovarian expression is yet to be reported. Osteoporosis is a common disease, caused mainly by low estrogen levels in females. We investigated whether OBAP regulates estrogen synthesis and osteoporosis. Using immunohistochemical analyses, we studied the distribution of OBAP in different parts of the mouse ovary. We also attempted to clarify the correlation of OBAP with ovarian steroids and calcium-regulating factors in the same ovarian tissues, including aromatase (CYP19), 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK), calmodulin, calbindin, and calcium-sensing receptor. The ovarian interstitial endocrine cells (IC) showed the greatest localization of OBAP, followed by the mature corpus luteum and the oocytes of mature Graafian follicles (MGF), while there were strong negative correlations of OBAP with CYP19. Strong positive correlations with 3β-HSD (except MGF), RANK (except IC), and calmodulin (except MGF and IC) were demonstrated. OBAP also showed partially positive correlations with ER and PR in the corpus luteum and with IC and calbindin in the MGF. We conclude that OBAP might be related to estrogen synthesis and calcium homeostasis.

Epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory findings for patients of different age groups with confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a hospital in Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND

Although the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic continues to rage worldwide, clinical and laboratory studies of this disease have been limited in many countries. We investigated the epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory findings of COVID-19 infected patients to identify the effective indicators correlated with the disease.

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted at King Abdullah Hospital in Bisha Province, Saudi Arabia, from March 20 to June 30, 2020. Patients of different age groups were confirmed as having COVID-19 infection using a real-time polymerase chain reaction. The demographic, clinical, and laboratory data of the patients were statistically analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the 132 patients, 85 were male and 47 were female, with a mean age of 50.9 years (SD±16.7). The patients were elderly (n = 29) and adults (n = 103). Of these, 54 (40.9%) had comorbidities, (25%) were admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), and 12 (9.1%) died. On admission, the main clinical manifestations were fever (84.1%), cough (64.4%), shortness of breath (25%), chest pain (20.5%), and fatigue (18.2%). In all patients, increased neutrophils and decreased lymphocytes were observed. Patients' lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was elevated. C-reactive protein (CRP) was elevated in 48.5%, D-dimer in 43.2%, and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) in 40.9% of patients. The elderly showed higher neutrophil (p = 0.011) and lower lymphocyte (p = 0.009) counts than adults. Glucose, creatine kinase-MB, LDH, bilirubin, D-dimer, and ESR were significantly higher in the elderly than in the adults. The COVID-19 death group had a higher leucocyte count (p = 0.036), and higher urea (p = 0.029) and potassium (p = 0.022) than the recovered group but had a lower hemoglobin concentration (p = 0.018). A significant association was determined between COVID-19 death and the presence of cardiovascular disease (χ2(1) = 16.297, p<0.001), hypertension (χ2(1) = 12.034, p = 0.001), renal failure (χ2(1) = 3.843, p = 0. 05), old age (t (130) = 4.9, p <0.001), and ICU admission (χ2(1) = 17.6 (1), p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Investigating some of the laboratory and clinical parameters could help assess the disease progression, risk of mortality, and follow up patients who could progress to a fatal condition.

Isolation and Identification of Some Probiotic Bacteria and Their Potential Role in Improving Immune Response and Resistance of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Comparison with a Commercial Product

This work aimed to retrieve a field isolate of probiotic from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and compare the obtained results with a commercial probiotic product through experimental studies. The study was conducted on 250 Nile tilapia. Ten fish were used to isolate the probiotic strain. Two isolates showed an in vitro inhibitory effect against pathogenic A. hydrophila. The isolate with the largest zone was identified by PCR. Sixty fish were used to test the safety of a potential probiotic. One hundred and eighty fish were used in a two-month feeding experiment. Fish were divided into 3 groups, group (1): the control, group (2): fed on potential probiotics, and group (3): fed on commercial probiotic (Organic Green™). The effects of tested products on the immune response were recorded in all groups. After one and two months of feeding experiment, blood and nonspecific immune parameters were evaluated. Disease resistance against Aeromonas hydrophila was evaluated through challenge experiment. The histopathology of the treated groups was fully recorded in comparison with the control group. The potential probiotic based on the in vitro antimicrobial activity test was identified as P. putida using routine and gel electrophoresis and 16S rRNA sequencing. During the first and the second month of experiment, there was a highly significant increase in the survival percent of the experimental fish in both treated groups with probiotics. In the first phase of the experiment, a significant increase in the haematocrit values and NBT, lysozyme activity, and phagocytic activity was seen in all treated groups in comparison with the control. The increase in the TLC was significant in the group fed with P. putida in comparison with the control group. In the second phase, a nonsignificant increase in the hematocrit values and significant increases in the NBT and phagocytic index were seen in P. putida and organic green groups in comparison with the control group. The TLC and DLC revealed nonsignificant changes in the treated groups in comparison with the control. The RLP in the groups treated with P. putida was higher than that in those treated with organic green. Although probiotics are an important management tool in aquaculture, it should be subjected to scientific laboratory tests and field measurements.

Hypothyroidism: morphological and metabolic changes in the testis of adult albino rat and the amelioration by alpha-lipoic acid

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of carbimazole- induced hypothyroidism on the testes of adult albino rats and the probable protective effect of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The rats were divided into four groups; control group, ALA group, carbimazole, and carbimazole + ALA groups. Rats were exposed to ALA (60 mg/kg body weight) or carbimazole (1.35 mg/kg body weight), or both, administered via gavages for 30 days.

RESULTS

Morphometric analysis revealed a significant decrease in tubular diameter, germinal epithelium thickness, and interstitial space as compared to the controls. Also, rats exposed to carbimazole showed a significant decline in testicular weight, sperm motility, and count. Additionally, deterioration of the testicular architecture was observed. ALA supplementation resulted in a significant improvement in the tubular diameter and germinal epithelium thickness, but no significant improvement regarding interstitial space was observed. Another observation was the significant decline in serum testosterone and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the carbimazole group, indicating reduced steroidogenesis. A significant reduction in reduced glutathione content was detected in the testes of the carbimazole group compared with the controls, while malonaldehyde concentration significantly increased. Conversely, ALA supplementation ameliorated the toxicity induced by hypothyroidism as illustrated by enhanced reproductive organ weights, testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and FSH levels, testicular steroidogenesis, and oxidative stress parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypothyroidism altered testicular antioxidant balance and negatively affected spermatogenesis. On the other hand, ALA through its antioxidant properties alleviated testicular toxicity in carbimazole-exposed rats.

Nanocurcumin improved glucose metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: a comparison study with Gliclazide

In the present study, the biochemical effect of nanocurcumin (nanoCUR) compared with Gliclazide (GLZ) on the diabetic rats was studied. Forty male albino rats (Sprague Dawley) weighted 110 ± 20 g were used. Rats were randomly separated into two groups. Control, received no treatment. Streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic groups take 5 ml/kg of STZ in normal saline daily for 30 days, further divided into diabetic non-treated group, did not receive any treatment: diabetic group treated by nanoCUR, received 15 mg/kg/day of nanoCUR orally for 30 days; diabetic group treated by GLZ, received 2 mg/kg/day of GLZ for 30 days. The mean body weights of all rats were registered and serum samples were collected for determination of fasting blood glucose (FBG), insulin concentration, liver glucokinase (GK), and glycogen synthase (GS) activities. Liver tissues were collected for determination of mRNA expression of insulin (INS), insulin receptor A (IRA), glucokinase (GK), and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2). The results revealed a significant reduction of body weight in diabetic rats, with no significant differences in nanoCUR and GLZ groups. There was a decline in FBG levels and significant elevation of INS levels, GK, and GS activities in diabetic rats received nanoCUR and GLZ. mRNA expression of INS, IRA, GK, and GLUT2 significantly upregulated in diabetic rats received nanoCUR and GLZ. The amazing observation was a non-significant difference in all measured parameters between nanoCUR and GLZ groups. In conclusion, nanoCUR is able to improve cellular uptake of glucose, the hepatic insulin signaling, and insulin sensitivity in diabetic rats. Its effect was similar to standard hypoglycemic drug (GLZ).

Isolation and Culture of Skin-Derived Differentiated and Stem-Like Cells Obtained from the Arabian Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

Simple Summary

This is the first comprehensive study to isolate different cellular types and stem-like cells from the camel skin. We reported the multipotency of the isolated stem cells. Moreover, some unique cells were observed, such as dermal cyst-forming cells. This discovery represents a cheap and easy source for camel stem cells that is essential for development of the elite camel regenerative medicine and provides a good source of camel fibroblast required for camel cloning.

Abstract

Elite camels often suffer from massive injuries. Thus, there is a pivotal need for a cheap and readily available regenerative medicine source. We isolated novel stem-like cells from camel skin and investigated their multipotency and resistance against various stresses. Skin samples were isolated from ears of five camels. Fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and spheroid progenitors were extracted. After separation of different cell lines by trypsinization, all cell lines were exposed to heat shock. Then, fibroblasts and dermal cyst-forming cells were examined under cryopreservation. Dermal cyst-forming cells were evaluated for resistance against osmotic pressure. The results revealed that resistance periods against trypsin were 1.5, 4, and 7 min for fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and spheroid progenitors, respectively. Furthermore, complete recovery of different cell lines after heat shock along with the differentiation of spheroid progenitors into neurons was observed. Fibroblasts and spheroid progenitors retained cell proliferation after cryopreservation. Dermal cyst-forming cells regained their normal structure after collapsing by osmotic pressure. The spheroid progenitors incubated in the adipogenic, osteogenic, and neurogenic media differentiated into adipocyte-, osteoblast-, and neuron-like cells, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, we isolated different unique cellular types and stem-like cells from the camel skin and examined their multipotency for the first time.