A brief history of poultry nutrition over the last hundred years

Teaching the principles of least-cost poultry feed formulation utilizing the Solver function within a computer software workbook

A Microsoft Excel workbook, User-Friendly Feed Formulation with Data from Australia (UffdAu.xlsm), has been developed for teaching feed formulation techniques to tertiary level, university students. It runs under both Microsoft Windows and Apple iOS operating systems. The example ingredient composition matrix is based on the Australian Feed Ingredient Database to illustrate the biological and econometric principles of least-cost feed formulation. The nutrient data are based roughly on recent primary breeder company recommendations. The workbook is easily adapted to appropriate ingredients, nutrients, and prices most relevant to the students, wherever it is used. The workbook uses the linear routines of Excel's Solver add-in under the Data heading in the header Ribbon. There is a worksheet illustrating how to adapt non-linear responses such as exogenous enzymes to typical linear models using a step function. Additional worksheets illustrate how proximate analysis can be interpreted in modern analytical chemistry terms and, how various feed energy measures are related to feed composition. UffdAu.xlsm is available free of charge from the Poultry Hub Australia website (https://www.poultryhub.org).

Vaccination Against Poultry Parasites

The complexity of parasites and their life cycles makes vaccination against parasitic diseases challenging. This review highlights this by discussing vaccination against four relevant parasites of poultry. Coccidia, i.e., Eimeria spp., are the most important parasites in poultry production, causing multiple billions of dollars of damage worldwide. Due to the trend of antibiotic-free broiler production, use of anticoccidia vaccines in broilers is becoming much more important. As of now, only live vaccines are on the market, almost all of which must be produced in birds. In addition, these live vaccines require extra care in the management of flocks to provide adequate protection and prevent the vaccines from causing damage. Considerable efforts to develop recombinant vaccines and related work to understand the immune response against coccidia have not yet resulted in an alternative. Leucozytozoon caulleryi is a blood parasite that is prevalent in East and South Asia. It is the only poultry parasite for which a recombinant vaccine has been developed and brought to market. Histomonas meleagridis causes typhlohepatitis in chickens and turkeys. The systemic immune response after intramuscular vaccination with inactivated parasites is not protective. The parasite can be grown and attenuated in vitro, but only together with bacteria. This and the necessary intracloacal application make the use of live vaccines difficult. So far, there have been no attempts to develop a recombinant vaccine against H. meleagridis. Inactivated vaccines inducing antibodies against the poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae have the potential to control infestations with this parasite. Potential antigens for recombinant vaccines have been identified, but the use of whole-mite extracts yields superior results. In conclusion, while every parasite is unique, development of vaccines against them shares common problems, namely the difficulties of propagating them in vitro and the identification of protective antigens that might be used in recombinant vaccines.

Performance and bone characteristics of broilers fed diets supplemented with vitamin A at different concentrations

This work evaluated the influence of vitamin A on performance, organ weight, and bone and skin characteristics in broilers (Cobb 500) at 21 and 42 days of age. A total of 1920 chickens were distributed in a randomised design, considering six vitamin A supplementation levels (0, 6000, 16,000, 26,000, 36,000, and 46,000 IU kg-1 ), with 16 replicates and 20 chickens per experimental unit, established due to rising the range of vitamin levels observed in the literature to evaluate the effect of vitamin A on broilers. At 22 days, half of the replicates from each treatment continued receiving the initial diet, and the other eight repetitions received diets without vitamin A (0 IU kg-1 ) until 42 days. The level of vitamin A influenced feed intake (FI) and body weight gain (BWG) until 21 days for all treatments. Broilers at 21 days of age had a more significant BWG at a vitamin A supplementation level of 28,209 IU kg-1 . At 42 days, vitamin A influenced the BWG and FI of broilers at treatments that were not supplemented after 21 days. Treatments supplemented up to 42 days showed quadratic responses to vitamin A for BWG, FI, and feed conversion. The vitamin A levels influenced the relative weights of the small intestine, pancreas, gizzard, abdominal fat, Seedor index, and breaking strength at 42 days, where the adequate supplementation of vitamin A improved these characteristics in broilers. Vitamin A supplementation from 22 to 42 days old did not affect broiler performance. An increased BWG was obtained when vitamin A supplementation occurred until 42 days, with supplementation of 29,375 IU kg-1 and a lower response of feed conversion with the addition of 27,775 IU kg-1 .

Biosecurity and antimicrobial use in broiler farms across nine European countries: toward identifying farm-specific options for reducing antimicrobial usage

Broiler chickens are among the main livestock sectors worldwide. With individual treatments being inapplicable, contrary to many other animal species, the need for antimicrobial use (AMU) is relatively high. AMU in animals is known to drive the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). High farm biosecurity is a cornerstone for animal health and welfare, as well as food safety, as it protects animals from the introduction and spread of pathogens and therefore the need for AMU. The goal of this study was to identify the main biosecurity practices associated with AMU in broiler farms and to develop a statistical model that produces customised recommendations as to which biosecurity measures could be implemented on a farm to reduce its AMU, including a cost-effectiveness analysis of the recommended measures. AMU and biosecurity data were obtained cross-sectionally in 2014 from 181 broiler farms across nine European countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland and Spain). Using mixed-effects random forest analysis (Mix-RF), recursive feature elimination was implemented to determine the biosecurity measures that best predicted AMU at the farm level. Subsequently, an algorithm was developed to generate AMU reduction scenarios based on the implementation of these measures. In the final Mix-RF model, 21 factors were present: 10 about internal biosecurity, 8 about external biosecurity and 3 about farm size and productivity, with the latter showing the largest (Gini) importance. Other AMU predictors, in order of importance, were the number of depopulation steps, compliance with a vaccination protocol for non-officially controlled diseases, and requiring visitors to check in before entering the farm. K-means clustering on the proximity matrix of the final Mix-RF model revealed that several measures interacted with each other, indicating that high AMU levels can arise for various reasons depending on the situation. The algorithm utilised the AMU predictive power of biosecurity measures while accounting also for their interactions, representing a first step toward aiding the decision-making process of veterinarians and farmers who are in need of implementing on-farm biosecurity measures to reduce their AMU.

Differential expression of microRNAs in the caecal content and faeces of broiler chickens experimentally infected with Eimeria

AbstractCoccidiosis caused by Eimeria spp. incurs significant morbidity and mortality in chickens, and is thus of great economic importance. Post-mortem intestinal lesion scoring remains one of the most common means of diagnosis, and therefore alternative, non-invasive methods of diagnosis and monitoring would be highly desirable. Micro-RNAs (miRNAs) have been shown to be stable in faeces of human and animal species with expression altered in gastrointestinal disease. We hypothesised that miRNA is stable in caecal content of chickens, and that differential miRNA expression patterns would be seen in Eimeria infected versus uninfected individuals. Initially, RNA was extracted from Eimeria tenella infected (n = 3; seven days post-infection) and uninfected (n = 3) chicken caecal content to demonstrate miRNA stability. Subsequently, next generation miRNA sequencing was performed on caecal content from E. tenella infected chickens with high (lesion score (LS) 3-4; n = 3) or low (LS1; n = 3) levels of pathology and uninfected controls (n = 3). Comparative analysis identified 19 miRNAs that exhibited significantly altered expression in the caecal content of E. tenella infected chickens versus uninfected chickens (t-test, False Discovery Rate (FDR) < 0.05). Eight of these miRNAs showed significant up-regulation in infection (fold change of 9.8-105, FDR <0.05). Quantitative PCR was performed using separate biological replicates to confirm differential regulation in 8 of these miRNA candidates in caecal and faecal content. This work has identified a panel of miRNA candidates which may be appropriate for use as non-invasive faecal markers of active caecal coccidiosis without the need for culling.

The Role of Nutraceuticals and Phytonutrients in Chickens’ Gastrointestinal Diseases

Simple Summary

The use of nutraceuticals and phytonutrients in poultry nutrition has been extensively explored over the past decade. The interest in these substances is linked to the search for natural compounds that can be effectively used to prevent and treat some of the main diseases of the chicken. The serious problem of antibiotic resistance and the consequent legislative constraints on their use required the search for alternatives. The purpose of this review is to describe the current status of the effects of some substances, such as probiotics and prebiotics, organic acids, vitamins and phytogenic feed additives, focusing specifically on studies concerning the prevention and treatment of four main gastrointestinal diseases in chicken: salmonellosis, necrotic enteritis (caused by Clostridium perfringens), campylobacteriosis, and coccidiosis. A brief description of these diseases and the effects of the main bioactive principles of the nutraceutical or phytonutrient groups will be provided. Although there are conflicting results, some works show very promising effects, with a reduction in the bacterial or protozoan load following treatment. Further studies are needed to verify the real effectiveness of these compounds and make them applicable in the field.

Abstract

In poultry, severe gastrointestinal diseases are caused by bacteria and coccidia, with important economic losses in the poultry industry and requirement of treatments which, for years, were based on the use of antibiotics and chemotherapies. Furthermore, Salmonella spp., Clostridium perfringens, and Campylobacter jejuni can cause serious foodborne diseases in people, resulting from consumption of poultry meat, eggs, and derived products. With the spread of antibiotic resistance, which affects both animals and humans, the restriction of antibiotic use in livestock production and the identification of a list of “critically important antimicrobials” became necessary. For this reason, researchers focused on natural compounds and effective alternatives to prevent gastrointestinal disease in poultry. This review summarizes the results of several studies published in the last decade, describing the use of different nutraceutical or phytonutrients in poultry industry. The results of the use of these products are not always encouraging. While some of the alternatives have proven to be very promising, further studies will be needed to verify the efficacy and practical applicability of other compounds.

Role of Vitamins in Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Review

BACKGROUND

Vitamins are the micronutrients required for boosting the immune system and managing any future infection. Vitamins are involved in neurogenesis, a defense mechanism working in neurons, metabolic reactions, neuronal survival, and neuronal transmission. Their deficiency leads to abnormal functions in the brain like oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, accumulation of proteins (synuclein, Aβ plaques), neurodegeneration, and excitotoxicity.

METHODS

In this review, we have compiled various reports collected from PubMed, Scholar Google, Research gate, and Science direct. The findings were evaluated, compiled, and represented in this manuscript.

CONCLUSION

The deficiency of vitamins in the body causes various neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and depression. We have discussed the role of vitamins in neurological disorders and the normal human body. Depression is linked to a deficiency of vitamin-C and vitamin B. In the case of Alzheimer's disease, there is a lack of vitamin-B1, B12, and vitamin-A, which results in Aβ-plaques. Similarly, in Parkinson's disease, vitamin-D deficiency leads to a decrease in the level of dopamine, and imbalance in vitamin D leads to accumulation of synuclein. In MS, Vitamin-C and Vitamin-D deficiency causes demyelination of neurons. In Huntington's disease, vitamin- C deficiency decreases the antioxidant level, enhances oxidative stress, and disrupts the glucose cycle. Vitamin B5 deficiency in Huntington's disease disrupts the synthesis of acetylcholine and hormones in the brain.

Trends in feed evaluation for poultry with emphasis on in vitro techniques

Accurate knowledge of the actual nutritional value of individual feed ingredients and complete diets is critical for efficient and sustainable animal production. For this reason, feed evaluation has always been in the forefront of nutritional research. Feed evaluation for poultry involves several approaches that include chemical analysis, table values, prediction equations, near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy, in vivo data and in vitro digestion techniques. Among these, the use of animals (in vivo) is the most valuable to gain information on nutrient utilization and is more predictive of bird performance. However, in vivo methods are expensive, laborious and time-consuming. It is therefore important to establish in vitro methods that are reliable, rapid and practical to assess the nutritional quality of feed ingredients or complete diets. Accuracy of the technique is crucial, as poor prediction will have a negative impact on bird performance and, increase feed cost and environmental issues. In this review, the relevance and importance of feed evaluation in poultry nutrition will be highlighted and the various approaches to evaluate the feed value of feed ingredients or complete diets will be discussed. Trends in and practical limitations encountered in feed evaluation science, with emphasis on in vitro digestion techniques, will be discussed.

Re-calculating the cost of coccidiosis in chickens

Coccidiosis, caused by Eimeria species parasites, has long been recognised as an economically significant disease of chickens. As the global chicken population continues to grow, and its contribution to food security intensifies, it is increasingly important to assess the impact of diseases that compromise chicken productivity and welfare. In 1999, Williams published one of the most comprehensive estimates for the cost of coccidiosis in chickens, featuring a compartmentalised model for the costs of prophylaxis, treatment and losses, indicating a total cost in excess of £38 million in the United Kingdom (UK) in 1995. In the 25 years since this analysis the global chicken population has doubled and systems of chicken meat and egg production have advanced through improved nutrition, husbandry and selective breeding of chickens, and wider use of anticoccidial vaccines. Using data from industry representatives including veterinarians, farmers, production and health experts, we have updated the Williams model and estimate that coccidiosis in chickens cost the UK £99.2 million in 2016 (range £73.0-£125.5 million). Applying the model to data from Brazil, Egypt, Guatemala, India, New Zealand, Nigeria and the United States resulted in estimates that, when extrapolated by geographical region, indicate a global cost of ~ £10.4 billion at 2016 prices (£7.7-£13.0 billion), equivalent to £0.16/chicken produced. Understanding the economic costs of livestock diseases can be advantageous, providing baselines to evaluate the impact of different husbandry systems and interventions. The updated cost of coccidiosis in chickens will inform debates on the value of chemoprophylaxis and development of novel anticoccidial vaccines.

A Review of Antimicrobial Resistance in Poultry Farming within Low-Resource Settings

The emergence, spread, and persistence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) remain a pressing global health issue. Animal husbandry, in particular poultry, makes up a substantial portion of the global antimicrobial use. Despite the growing body of research evaluating the AMR within industrial farming systems, there is a gap in understanding the emergence of bacterial resistance originating from poultry within resource-limited environments. As countries continue to transition from low- to middle income countries (LMICs), there will be an increased demand for quality sources of animal protein. Further promotion of intensive poultry farming could address issues of food security, but it may also increase risks of AMR exposure to poultry, other domestic animals, wildlife, and human populations. Given that intensively raised poultry can function as animal reservoirs for AMR, surveillance is needed to evaluate the impacts on humans, other animals, and the environment. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of poultry production within low-resource settings in order to inform future small-scale poultry farming development. Future research is needed in order to understand the full extent of the epidemiology and ecology of AMR in poultry within low-resource settings.

Energy metabolism and sources of oxidative stress in wooden breast - a review

Modern broilers show dramatic growth over a short interval and contribute directly to the success of the poultry meat industry. The growth performance of commercial broilers is a result of genetic selection for "performance traits", such as body size, meat yield, and feed conversion rate. However, due to the rapid growth rate of modern commercial broilers, several growth-related conditions have arisen, increasing economic losses and consumer concerns. Among the most economically consequential is the muscle disorder called wooden breast. Together with associated myopathies such as white striping and spaghetti meat, wooden breast is causing losses of $200 million a year in the U.S. alone and occurs worldwide. No causative factors are known for wooden breast to date. Wooden breast can affect over 80% of broilers in a flock, yet no methods of amelioration are currently available. Overall, the evidence suggests that wooden breast is a genetic, age-dependent condition associated with fast growth rate. The primary features of wooden breast are muscle degeneration and fibrosis, high levels of oxidative stress, hypoxia, and altered energy metabolism. Recent work has also implicated reduced pectoral vessel density in the pathogenesis of wooden breast. This review examines the history of myopathies in commercial broilers and the relationship of myopathies to metabolism and oxidative performance. This review summarizes the foundational knowledge of wooden breast and provides a platform for further investigation of wooden breast.