Ceftiofur-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Heidelberg of poultry origin - a risk profile using the Codex framework

Extended Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacterales of Shrimp and Salmon Available for Purchase by Consumers in Canada-A Risk Profile Using the Codex Framework

The extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacterales (ESBL-EB) encompass several important human pathogens and are found on the World Health Organization (WHO) priority pathogens list of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. They are a group of organisms which demonstrate resistance to third-generation cephalosporins (3GC) and their presence has been documented worldwide, including in aquaculture and the aquatic environment. This risk profile was developed following the Codex Guidelines for Risk Analysis of Foodborne Antimicrobial Resistance with the objectives of describing the current state of knowledge of ESBL-EB in relation to retail shrimp and salmon available to consumers in Canada, the primary aquacultured species consumed in Canada. The risk profile found that Enterobacterales and ESBL-EB have been found in multiple aquatic environments, as well as multiple host species and production levels. Although the information available did not permit the conclusion as to whether there is a human health risk related to ESBLs in Enterobacterales in salmon and shrimp available for consumption by Canadians, ESBL-EB in imported seafood available at the retail level in Canada have been found. Surveillance activities to detect ESBL-EB in seafood are needed; salmon and shrimp could be used in initial surveillance activities, representing domestic and imported products.

Targeted metagenomics using bait-capture to detect antibiotic resistance genes in retail meat and seafood

Metagenomics analysis of foods has the potential to provide comprehensive data on the presence and prevalence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes in the microbiome of foods. However, AMR genes are generally present in low abundance compared to other bacterial genes in the food microbiome and consequently require multiple rounds of in-depth sequencing for detection. Here, a metagenomics approach, using bait-capture probes targeting antimicrobial resistance and plasmid genes, is used to characterize the resistome and plasmidome of retail beef, chicken, oyster, shrimp, and veal enrichment cultures (n = 15). Compared to total shotgun metagenomics, bait-capture required approximately 40-fold fewer sequence reads to detect twice the number of AMR gene classes, AMR gene families, and plasmid genes across all sample types. For the detection of critically important extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) genes the bait capture method had a higher overall positivity rate (44%) compared to shotgun metagenomics (26%), and a culture-based method (29%). Overall, the results support the use of bait-capture for the identification of low abundance genes such as AMR genes from food samples.

Scope and applicability of social-ecological resilience to antimicrobial resistance

Social-ecological systems conceptualise how social human systems and ecological natural systems are intertwined. In this Personal View, we define the scope and applicability of social-ecological resilience to antimicrobial resistance. Resilience to antimicrobial resistance corresponds to the capacity to maintain the societal benefits of antimicrobial use and One Health systems' performance in the face of the evolutionary behaviour of microorganisms in response to antimicrobial use. Social-ecological resilience provides an appropriate framework to make sense of the disruptive impacts resulting from the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance; capture the diversity of strategies needed to tackle antimicrobial resistance and to live with it; understand the conditions that underpin the success or failure of interventions; and appreciate the need for adaptive and coevolutionary governance. Overall, resilience thinking is essential to improve understanding of how human societies dynamically can cope with, adapt, and transform to the growing global challenge of antimicrobial resistance.

Effects of partial or complete replacement of soybean meal with commercial black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) meal on growth performance, cecal short chain fatty acids, and excreta metabolome of broiler chickens

Black soldier fly larvae meal (BSFLM) is receiving great attention as a rich source of protein and antimicrobials for poultry. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of partially or completely replacing soybean meal (SBM) with commercial BSFLM on growth performance, tibia traits, cecal short chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentrations, and excreta metabolomes in broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). A total of 480 day-old male Ross × Ross 708 chicks were assigned to 6 diets (8 replicates/diet): a basal corn-SBM diet with in-feed bacitracin methylene disalicylate (BMD), a corn-SBM diet without BMD (0% BSFLM), and four diets in which the SBM was substituted with 12.5, 25, 50, and 100% BSFLM. Body weight (BW), feed intake (FI) and cumulative feed conversion ratio (cFCR) were monitored on days 14, 28, and 35. Cecal SCFA levels were determined on days 14, 28, and 35. Tibia traits and excreta metabolomes were determined on day (d) 35. On d14, birds fed 12.5 and 25% BSFLM had a similar BW, FI, and cFCR as birds fed BMD (P > 0.05). On d 35, birds fed 12.5% BSFLM had a similar BW, FI and cFCR as birds fed BMD or 0% BSFLM (P > 0.05). For each phase, birds fed 100% BSFLM had a lower BW, FI and higher cFCR than birds fed BMD or 0% BSFLM (P < 0.05). On d 35, BW decreased linearly, quadratically, and cubically with increasing levels of BSFLM (P < 0.01). Overall (d 0-35), BSFLM linearly, quadratically, and cubically decreased FI and quadratically and cubically increased cFCR (P < 0.01). Quadratic responses were observed for tibia fresh weight (P = 0.049) and ash content (P = 0.022). BSFLM did not impact cecal SCFAs levels. The excreta metabolome of birds fed 100% BSFLM clustered independently from all other groups and exhibited greater levels of putatively identified methionine, lysine, valine, glutamine, histidine and lower levels of arginine as compared to all diets. Taken together, substitution of SBM with ≤25% of BSFLM in the starter phase may be used as an alternative to BMD.

Association between antimicrobial resistance and biofilm forming ability of Salmonella enterica serotypes from commercial broiler farms in Brazil

1. This study determined the antimicrobial resistance profile and the biofilm-forming ability of Salmonella enterica strains isolated from commercial broiler houses over a three-year period in southern Brazil.

2. Of the 720 drag swabs analysed, 37 (5.1%) tested positive for non-typhoidal Salmonella spp. and S. Heidelberg was the most frequent serovar.

3. Among the antimicrobial resistant strains (83.8%; 31/37), resistance was most common to tetracycline, ampicillin and nalidixic acid. Multidrug resistance was found in 65% (24/37) of the isolates, with a large proportion of multidrug resistant S. Heidelberg strains (81%; 13/16).

4. In total, 65% (24/37) of the isolates showed the ability to produce biofilm and multiple antimicrobial resistance was negatively correlated with biofilm formation.

5. Strains susceptible to all tested antimicrobials tended to form stronger biofilms than multidrug resistant ones. This suggested that Salmonella spp. with less antimicrobial resistance depend more on the protection provided by biofilm to survive in the farm environment.

Current Insights Regarding the Role of Farm Animals in the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance from a One Health Perspective

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a global threat to both human and animal health and has received increasing attention over the years from different stakeholders. Certain AMR bacteria circulate between humans, animals, and the environment, while AMR genes can be found in all ecosystems. The aim of the present review was to provide an overview of antimicrobial use in food-producing animals and to document the current status of the role of farm animals in the spread of AMR to humans. The available body of scientific evidence supported the notion that restricted use of antimicrobials in farm animals was effective in reducing AMR in livestock and, in some cases, in humans. However, most recent studies have reported that livestock have little contribution to the acquisition of AMR bacteria and/or AMR genes by humans. Overall, strategies applied on farms that target the reduction of all antimicrobials are recommended, as these are apparently associated with notable reduction in AMR (avoiding co-resistance between antimicrobials). The interconnection between human and animal health as well as the environment requires the acceleration of the implementation of the 'One Health' approach to effectively fight AMR while preserving the effectiveness of antimicrobials.

A scoping review of factors potentially linked with antimicrobial-resistant bacteria from turkeys (iAM.AMR Project)

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a complex problem that is a threat to global public health. Consumption of turkey meat may be an important source of foodborne exposure to resistant bacteria; recent outbreaks of multi-drug-resistant Salmonella Reading in Canada and the USA have implicated raw turkey products. To better understand the epidemiology of AMR in farmed turkey production, a scoping review was conducted. The objectives were to identify (1) modifiable factors potentially associated with antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter, Enterococcus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica along the farm-to-fork pathway in turkeys, and (2) data gaps with respect to factors potentially associated with AMR and Canadian commercial turkey production. A comprehensive search of the peer-reviewed literature was conducted in 2019 and updated in 2021. Thirteen references were included, reporting 36 factors. Antimicrobial use factors and their potential associations with AMR were most frequently reported (n = 15 factors; 42%), followed by biosecurity (n = 11; 31%) and management practices (n = 10; 28%). This review revealed important data gaps; no factors pertaining to S. enterica or to stages other than the farm (e.g. abattoir, retail) were identified, and only one Canadian reference was identified. These findings will inform priorities for future research and surveillance regarding turkeys and AMR.

Carbapenem-resistant Escherichia coli from shrimp and salmon available for purchase by consumers in Canada: a risk profile using the Codex framework

Resistance to carbapenems in human pathogens is a growing clinical and public health concern. The carbapenems are in an antimicrobial class considered last-resort, they are used to treat human infections caused by multidrug-resistant Enterobacterales, and they are classified by the World Health Organization as 'High Priority Critically Important Antimicrobials'. The presence of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CREs) of animal-origin is of concern because targeted studies of Canadian retail seafood revealed the presence of carbapenem resistance in a small number of Enterobacterales isolates. To further investigate this issue, a risk profile was developed examining shrimp and salmon, the two most important seafood commodities consumed by Canadians and Escherichia coli, a member of the Enterobacterales order. Carbapenem-resistant E. coli (CREc) isolates have been identified in shrimp and other seafood products. Although carbapenem use in aquaculture has not been reported, several classes of antimicrobials are utilised globally and co-selection of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms in an aquaculture setting is also of concern. CREs have been identified in retail seafood purchased in Canada and are currently thought to be uncommon. However, data concerning CRE or CREc occurrence and distribution in seafood are limited, and argue for implementation of ongoing or periodic surveillance.

Antimicrobial resistance: One Health approach

In this research, a review of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is conducted as part of the One Health approach. A review of publications, which included “antimicrobial resistance” and “One Health,” was conducted. Among the global health problems, AMR is the one that most clearly illustrates the One Health approach. AMR is a critical global problem affecting humans, the environment, and animals. This is related to each of these three components due to the irresponsible and excessive use of antimicrobials in various sectors (agriculture, livestock, and human medicine). Improper management of antimicrobials, inadequate control of infections, agricultural debris, pollutants in the environment, and migration of people and animals infected with resistant bacteria facilitate the spread of resistance. The study aimed to analyze the problem of AMR from a health perspective to analyze the different actors involved in One Health.

A Ternary Copper (II) Complex with 4-Fluorophenoxyacetic Acid Hydrazide in Combination with Antibiotics Exhibits Positive Synergistic Effect against Salmonella Typhimurium

Salmonella spp. continues to figure prominently in world epidemiological registries as one of the leading causes of bacterial foodborne disease. We characterised 43 Brazilian lineages of Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) strains, characterized drug resistance patterns, tested copper (II) complex as control options, and proposed effective antimicrobial measures. The minimum inhibitory concentration was evaluated for seven antimicrobials, isolated and combined with the copper (II) complex [Cu(4-FH)(phen)(ClO4)2] (4-FH = 4-fluorophenoxyacetic acid hydrazide and phen = 1,10-phenanthroline), known as DRI-12, in planktonic and sessile ST. In parallel, 42 resistance genes were screened (PCR/microarray). All strains were multidrug resistant (MDR). Resistance to carbapenems and polymyxins (86 and 88%, respectively) have drawn attention to the emergence of the problem in Brazil, and resistance is observed also to CIP and CFT (42 and 67%, respectively), the drugs of choice in treatment. Resistance to beta-lactams was associated with the genes blaTEM/blaCTX-M in 39% of the strains. Lower concentrations of DRI-12 (62.7 mg/L, or 100 μM) controlled planktonic and sessile ST in relation to AMP/SUL/TET and AMP/SUL/TET/COL, respectively. The synergistic effect provided by DRI-12 was significant for COL/CFT and COL/AMP in planktonic and sessile ST, respectively, and represents promising alternatives for the control of MDR ST.

The European Union Summary Report on Antimicrobial Resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2019-2020

Data on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food are collected annually by the EU Member States (MSs), jointly analysed by the EFSA and the ECDC and reported in a yearly EU Summary Report. The annual monitoring of AMR in animals and food within the EU is targeted at selected animal species corresponding to the reporting year. The 2020 monitoring specifically focussed on poultry and their derived carcases/meat, while the monitoring performed in 2019 specifically focused on fattening pigs and calves under 1 year of age, as well as their derived carcases/meat. Monitoring and reporting of AMR in 2019-2020 included data regarding Salmonella, Campylobacter and indicator E. coli isolates, as well as data obtained from the specific monitoring of presumptive ESBL-/AmpC-/carbapenemase-producing E. coli isolates. Additionally, some MSs reported voluntary data on the occurrence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in animals and food, with some countries also providing data on antimicrobial susceptibility. This report provides an overview of the main findings of the 2019-2020 harmonised AMR monitoring in the main food-producing animal populations monitored, in carcase/meat samples and in humans. Where available, monitoring data obtained from pigs, calves, broilers, laying hens and turkeys, as well as from carcase/meat samples and humans were combined and compared at the EU level, with particular emphasis on multidrug resistance, complete susceptibility and combined resistance patterns to critically important antimicrobials, as well as Salmonella and E. coli isolates possessing ESBL-/AmpC-/carbapenemase phenotypes. The key outcome indicators for AMR in food-producing animals, such as complete susceptibility to the harmonised panel of antimicrobials in E. coli and the prevalence of ESBL-/AmpC-producing E. coli have been specifically analysed over the period 2014-2020.

Assessment of maternal immunity against Salmonella enterica serovar Heidelberg in progeny of broiler breeders vaccinated with different formulations of bacterins

Salmonella Heidelberg (SH) has been reported in broiler flocks of many countries. The ability of some SH strains from poultry origin to cause foodborne infections in humans is a concern. Usually infection of broiler flocks by SH occurs in the first days of life. Therefore, control measures should start early post-hatch. One of the strategies is to generate high titers of anti-Salmonella IgY in breeders by using bacterins to provide passive immunity to their progeny. In this study three broiler breeder flocks were submitted to three Salmonella vaccination regimes (two doses of vaccine 1, two doses of vaccine 2 and non-vaccinated). When breeders were 30 and 55 weeks-old, part of their offspring were separated and challenged with a SH strain at three days of age. Dissemination to organs, caecal colonization and faecal excretion of SH were evaluated over 20 days. Chicks from vaccinated 30 week-old breeders presented lower amounts of SH in caecal content at 1, 3 and 6 days-post infection, correlating with high titers of maternal anti-Salmonella IgY in their yolk. In contrast, there were no differences in counts of SH in caecal content of chicks when their parents were 55 weeks-old and titers of IgY were reduced. Amounts of SH in liver and spleen were low and there were no differences among birds over the experiment. Progeny from 30 week-old flock vaccinated with vaccine 1 also showed lower SH faecal shedding than the remaining birds. Apparently, the maternal IgY was associated with reductions in intestinal infection by SH.

Informing Stewardship Measures in Canadian Food Animal Species through Integrated Reporting of Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Data-Part II, Application

Using the methodology developed for integrated analysis and reporting of antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) data, farm-level surveillance data were synthesized and integrated to assess trends and explore potential AMU and AMR associations. Data from broiler chicken flocks (n = 656), grower-finisher pig herds (n = 462) and turkey flocks (n = 339) surveyed by the Canadian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (CIPARS) at the farm-level (2015-2019) were used. The analyses showed a reduction in mean flock/herd level number of defined daily doses using Canadian standards (nDDDvetCA) adjusted for kg animal biomass that coincided with the decline in % resistance in the three species. This was noted in most AMU-AMR pairs studied except for ciprofloxacin resistant Campylobacter where resistance continued to be detected (moderate to high levels) despite limited fluoroquinolone use. Noteworthy was the significantly negative association between the nDDDvetCA/kg animal biomass and susceptible Escherichia coli (multispecies data), an early indication that AMU stewardship actions are having an impact. However, an increase in the reporting of diseases in recent years was observed. This study highlighted the value of collecting high-resolution AMU surveillance data with animal health context at the farm-level to understand AMR trends, enable data integration and measure the impact of AMU stewardship actions.

Phage and phage lysins: New era of bio-preservatives and food safety agents

There has been an increase in the search and application of new antimicrobial agents as alternatives to use of chemical preservatives and antibiotic-like compounds by the food industry. The massive use of antibiotic has created a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria that find their way from farm to humans. Thus, there exists an imperative need to explore new antibacterial options and bacteriophages perfectly fit into the class of safe and potent antimicrobials. Phage bio-control has come a long way owing to advances with use of phage cocktails, recombinant phages, and phage lysins; however, there still exists unmet challenges that restrict the number of phage-based products reaching the market. Hence, further studies are required to explore for more efficient phage-based bio-control strategies that can become an integral part of food safety protocols. This review thus aims to highlight the recent developments made in the application of phages and phage enzymes covering pre-harvest as well as post-harvest usage. It further focuses on the major issues in both phage and phage lysin research hindering their optimum use while detailing out the advances made by researchers lately in this direction for full exploitation of phages and phage lysins in the food sector.

Building Social-Ecological System Resilience to Tackle Antimicrobial Resistance Across the One Health Spectrum: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Study

BACKGROUND

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an escalating global crisis with serious health, social, and economic consequences. Building social-ecological system resilience to reduce AMR and mitigate its impacts is critical.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to compare and assess interventions that address AMR across the One Health spectrum and determine what actions will help to build social and ecological capacity and readiness to sustainably tackle AMR.

METHODS

We will apply social-ecological resilience theory to AMR in an explicit One Health context using mixed methods and identify interventions that address AMR and its key pressure antimicrobial use (AMU) identified in the scientific literature and in the gray literature using a web-based survey. Intervention impacts and the factors that challenge or contribute to the success of interventions will be determined, triangulated against expert opinions in participatory workshops and complemented using quantitative time series analyses. We will then identify indicators using regression modeling, which can predict national and regional AMU or AMR dynamics across animal and human health. Together, these analyses will help to quantify the causal loop diagrams (CLDs) of AMR in the European and Southeast Asian food system contexts that are developed by diverse stakeholders in participatory workshops. Then, using these CLDs, the long-term impacts of selected interventions on AMR will be explored under alternate future scenarios via simulation modeling and participatory workshops. A publicly available learning platform housing information about interventions on AMR from a One Health perspective will be developed to help decision makers identify promising interventions for application in their jurisdictions.

RESULTS

To date, 669 interventions have been identified in the scientific literature, 891 participants received a survey invitation, and 4 expert feedback and 4 model-building workshops have been conducted. Time series analysis, regression modeling of national and regional indicators of AMR dynamics, and scenario modeling activities are anticipated to be completed by spring 2022. Ethical approval has been obtained from the University of Waterloo's Office of Research Ethics (ethics numbers 40519 and 41781).

CONCLUSIONS

This paper provides an example of how to study complex problems such as AMR, which require the integration of knowledge across sectors and disciplines to find sustainable solutions. We anticipate that our study will contribute to a better understanding of what actions to take and in what contexts to ensure long-term success in mitigating AMR and its impact and provide useful tools (eg, CLDs, simulation models, and public databases of compiled interventions) to guide management and policy decisions.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/24378.

Antimicrobial Use in Animals in Timor-Leste Based on Veterinary Antimicrobial Imports between 2016 and 2019

Monitoring veterinary antimicrobial use is part of the global strategy to tackle antimicrobial resistance. The purpose of this study was to quantify veterinary antimicrobials imported into Timor-Leste between 2016 and 2019 and describe the antimicrobial import profile of importers. Data were obtained from import applications received by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) of Timor-Leste. Import quantities were analysed by antimicrobial class, importance for human medicine, recommended route of administration and type of importer. An average of 57.4 kg (s.d. 31.0 kg) and 0.55 mg/kg (s.d. 0.27 mg/kg) animal biomass of antimicrobials was imported per year. Tetracyclines (35.5%), penicillins (23.7%), and macrolides (15.9%) were the commonly imported antimicrobial classes. Antimicrobials imported for parenteral administration were most common (60.1%). MAF was the largest importer (52.4%). Most of the critically important antimicrobials for human medicine were imported by poultry farms for oral administration and use for growth promotion could not be ruled out. In conclusion, the use of antimicrobials in animals in Timor-Leste is very low, in keeping with its predominantly subsistence agriculture system. Farmer education, development of treatment guidelines, and strengthening of the veterinary service is important for addressing the potential future misuse of antimicrobials especially in the commercial poultry industry.

The European Union Summary Report on Antimicrobial Resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2018/2019

Data on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food are collected annually by the EU Member States (MSs), jointly analysed by the EFSA and the ECDC and reported in a yearly EU Summary Report. The annual monitoring of AMR in animals and food within the EU is targeted at selected animal species corresponding to the reporting year. The 2018 monitoring specifically focussed on poultry and their derived carcases/meat, while the monitoring performed in 2019 specifically focused on pigs and calves under 1 year of age, as well as their derived carcases/meat. Monitoring and reporting of AMR in 2018/2019 included data regarding Salmonella, Campylobacter and indicator Escherichia coli isolates, as well as data obtained from the specific monitoring of presumptive ESBL-/AmpC-/carbapenemase-producing E. coli isolates. Additionally, some MSs reported voluntary data on the occurrence of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in animals and food, with some countries also providing data on antimicrobial susceptibility. This report provides an overview of the main findings of the 2018/2019 harmonised AMR monitoring in the main food-producing animal populations monitored, in related carcase/meat samples and in humans. Where available, data monitoring obtained from pigs, calves, broilers, laying hens and turkeys, as well as from carcase/meat samples and humans were combined and compared at the EU level, with particular emphasis on multidrug resistance, complete susceptibility and combined resistance patterns to critically important antimicrobials, as well as Salmonella and E. coli isolates possessing ESBL-/AmpC-/carbapenemase phenotypes. The outcome indicators for AMR in food-producing animals such as complete susceptibility to the harmonised panel of antimicrobials in E. coli and the prevalence of ESBL-/AmpC-producing E. coli have been also specifically analysed over the period 2015-2019.

Antimicrobial resistance in non-Typhoidal Salmonella from retail poultry meat by antibiotic usage-related production claims - United States, 2008-2017

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in non-typhoidal Salmonella from poultry is a public health concern. Injudicious use of antibiotics in humans and agriculture fuels the emergence of resistance. The objective of this study was to characterize the prevalence, antibiotic susceptibility profiles and genetic resistance mechanisms of Salmonella isolated from US retail poultry meat samples with and without antibiotic-related claims. We reviewed data from 46,937 poultry meat samples collected from 2008 to 2017 through the FDA NARMS retail meat program. Antibiotic usage claims on the poultry packaging were used to categorize the sample as 'conventionally raised' or 'reduced or no antibiotic use'. The results show that the prevalence of Salmonella in conventional poultry samples (8.6%) was higher than reduced or no antibiotic use poultry samples (5.1%). The odds of resistance to three or more antimicrobial classes (multi-drug resistant) were 2.61 times higher for Salmonella isolates from conventional samples, compared to isolates from reduced antibiotic use samples. The frequency of the aminoglycoside resistance gene, strB, and the beta-lactam resistant gene, blaCMY-2, were higher in isolates from conventional meat. This study suggests that conventionally raised poultry meat was more likely to be contaminated with multi-drug resistant Salmonella, and those Salmonella are more likely to carry genes for antibiotics resistance.

Review of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment in Poultry Meat: The Central Position of Consumer Behavior

Food of animal origin, especially meat products, represent the main vehicle of foodborne pathogens and so are implicated in foodborne outbreaks. Poultry meat is a widely consumed food in various forms, but it is also a reservoir of thermotolerant Campylobacter and Salmonella bacterial species. To assess human health risks associated with pathogenic bacteria in poultry meat, the use of quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) has increased over the years as it is recognized to address complex food safety issues and is recommended by health authorities. The present project reviewed poultry meat QMRA, identified key steps of the farm-to-fork chain with significant impacts on food safety, highlighted current knowledge gaps, and provided risk mitigation advices. A PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)-based systematic analysis was carried out and enabled the collection of 4056 studies including 42 QMRA kept for analysis after screening. The latter emphasized Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. contaminations during the consumer stage as the main concern. The role of consumer handling on cross-contamination and undercooking events were of major concern. Thus, proper hygiene and safety practices by consumers have been suggested as the main intervention and would need to be followed with regular surveys to assess behavior changes and reduce knowledge gaps.

Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Escherichia coli and Salmonella Isolates in Canadian Broiler Chickens and Their Products

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health threat. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate AMR in generic Escherichia coli and Salmonella recovered from broiler chickens in Canada. To do this, an analysis of the antimicrobial susceptibility results was performed on a sample of generic E. coli and Salmonella isolates from the 2012 to 2013 national microbiological baseline study in broiler chicken. Of the 1135 generic E. coli isolates tested, 940 (82.8%) were resistant to at least one antimicrobial, with a large number of unique AMR profiles observed. Of the 1495 Salmonella isolates tested, 879 (58.8%) were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. Resistance was most common to aminoglycosides, β-lactams, and tetracyclines and, for generic E. coli isolates only, folate inhibitors. Differences in AMR patterns were observed across regions for both E. coli and Salmonella. For Salmonella, the levels of resistance were similar across the different sectors sampled along the food chain (e.g., slaughterhouse and retail) and the types of product sampled. There were also considerable differences in the levels and patterns of resistance among different Salmonella serovars, with most Salmonella Enteritidis isolates being susceptible to all antimicrobials tested.