Conductances evoked by light in the ON-beta ganglion cell of cat retina

Ex vivo ocular perfusion model to study vascular physiology in the mouse eye

Several hypotheses have been tested to understand whole organ regulation in other organs such as the brain and kidney, but no such hypothesis has yet been proposed for ocular circulations. To some extent resolve this deficit our ex vivo mouse eye perfusion model takes the first step in elucidating the mechanisms controlling the individual components of the ocular circulation. Various isolated ocular vascular preparations have been utilized in studies of ocular vascular biology, physiology, and pharmacology, including studies on both normal and pathological conditions. However, there is still significant potential for further studies to improve our understanding of ocular circulation and its regulation. The choroid specifically is inaccessible to direct visualization due to the retina's high metabolic requirement with a transparency that cannot be compromised by an overly rich vascular network on the inner retinal side hindering the visualization of the choroid. In this technical paper, we provide a detailed description of all the steps to be followed from the enucleation of mouse eyes to cannulation of the ophthalmic artery and perfusion and ex vivo confocal microscopy imaging of the dynamic nature of the choroid circulation.

Effects of noise on the spike timing precision of retinal ganglion cells

Information in a spike train is limited by variability in the spike timing. This variability is caused by noise from several sources including synapses and membrane channels; but how deleterious each noise source is and how they affect spike train coding is unknown. Combining physiology and a multicompartment model, we studied the effect of synaptic input noise and voltage-gated channel noise on spike train reliability for a mammalian ganglion cell. For tonic stimuli, the SD of the interspike intervals increased supralinearly with increasing interspike interval. When the cell was driven by current injection, voltage-gated channel noise and background synaptic noise caused fluctuations in the interspike interval of comparable amplitude. Spikes initiated on the dendrites could cause additional spike timing fluctuations. For transient stimuli, synaptic noise was dominant and spontaneous background activity strongly increased fluctuations in spike timing but decreased the latency of the first spike.

Synaptic currents generating the inhibitory surround of ganglion cells in the mammalian retina

The receptive field (RF) of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) consists of an excitatory central region, the RF center, and an inhibitory peripheral region, the RF surround. It is still unknown in detail which inhibitory interneurons (horizontal or amacrine cells) and which inhibitory circuits (presynaptic or postsynaptic) generate the RF surround. To study surround inhibition, light-evoked whole-cell currents were recorded from RGCs of the isolated, intact rabbit retina. The RFs were stimulated with light or dark spots of increasing diameters and with annular light stimuli. Direct inhibitory currents could be isolated by voltage clamping ganglion cells close to the Na(+)/K(+) reversal potential. They mostly represent an input from GABAergic amacrine cells that contribute to the inhibitory surround of ganglion cells. This direct inhibitory input and its physiological function were also investigated by recording light-evoked action potentials of RGCs in the current-clamp mode and by changing the intracellular Cl(-) concentration. The excitatory input of the ganglion cells could be isolated by voltage clamping ganglion cells at the Cl(-) reversal potential. Large light spots and annular light stimuli caused a strong attenuation of the excitatory input. Both GABA(A) receptors and GABA(C) receptors contributed to this inhibition, and picrotoxinin was able to completely block it. Together, these results show that the RF surround of retinal ganglion cells is mediated by a combination of direct inhibitory synapses and presynaptic surround inhibition.

Retinal research using the perfused mammalian eye

The effort to isolate and maintain alive in vitro an intact mammalian eye is rewarded by the full control provided over the arterial input and exclusion of systemic regulatory or compensatory mechanisms. Electrical recording of typical light-evoked field potentials from retina and optic nerve can be complemented by single-cell recording. Thus, light-induced electrical activity reflects the function of the retinal pigment epithelium, of the layers of the retina and of the ganglion cells or their axons. Retinal function in vitro is documented by electrophysiological and morphological methods revealing subtle features of retinal information processing as well as optic nerve signals that approach-at threshold stimulus intensity-the human psychophysical threshold. Such sensitivity of third-order retinal neurons is described for the first time. This well controlled in vitro preparation has been used successfully for biophysical, metabolic and pharmacological studies. Examples are provided that demonstrate the marked sensibility of the rod system to changes in glucose supply. Moreover, histochemical identification of glycogen stores revealed labeling of the second- and third-order neurons subserving the rod system, in addition to labeling of Müller (glial) cells in the cat retina. The glycogen content of the cat retina is augmented by prolonged anesthesia, largely depleted by ischemia after enucleation and enhanced by insulin. Pharmacological experiments using agonists and antagonists of putative retinal neurotransmitters are summarized and outlined using the muscarinic cholinergic agonist QNB as an example. Actions and uptake of the neuromodulator adenosine are presented in detail, including inhibitory effects on physiologically characterized ganglion cells. Neuronal effects of adenosine are distinguished from those resulting from vasodilatation and from glycogenolysis induced by the neuromodulator. To open the blood-retina barrier, a hyperosmotic challenge can be applied transiently. This process is monitored histochemically using FITC-albumin and with electrophysiological parameters. Changes in vitreo-scleral resistance and in the amplitude of the EOG-light peak appear to reflect the open/closed status of the barrier. This overview of the uses of the isolated perfused mammalian eye in retinal research concludes with a discussion of potential implications for clinically relevant topics.

Parallel cone bipolar pathways to a ganglion cell use different rates and amplitudes of quantal excitation

The cone signal reaches the cat's On-beta (X) ganglion cell via several parallel circuits (bipolar cell types b1, b2, and b3). These circuits might convey different regions of the cone's temporal bandwidth. To test this, I presented a step of light that elicited a transient depolarization followed by a sustained depolarization. The contribution of bipolar cells to these response components was isolated by blocking action potentials with tetrodotoxin and by blocking inhibitory synaptic potentials with bicuculline and strychnine. Stationary fluctuation analysis of the sustained depolarization gave the rate of quantal bombardment: approximately 5100 quanta sec(-1) for small central cells and approximately 45,000 quanta sec(-1) for large peripheral cells. Normalizing these rates for the vastly different numbers of bipolar synapses (150-370 per small cell vs 2000 per large cell), quantal rate was constant across the retina, approximately 22 quanta synapse(-1) sec(-1). Nonstationary fluctuation analysis gave the mean quantal EPSP amplitude: approximately 240 microV for the transient depolarization and 30 microV for the sustained depolarization. The b1 bipolar cell is known from noise analysis of the On-alpha ganglion cell to have a near-maximal sustained release of only approximately two quanta synapse(-1) sec(-1). This implies that the other bipolar types (b2 and b3) contribute many more quanta to the sustained depolarization (>/=46 synapse(-1) sec(-1)). Type b1 probably contributes large quanta to the transient depolarization. Thus, bipolar cell types b1 and b2/b3 apparently constitute parallel circuits that convey, respectively, high and low frequencies.

Light-evoked excitatory synaptic currents of X-type retinal ganglion cells

The excitatory amino acid receptor (EAAR) types involved in the generation of light-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) were examined in X-type retinal ganglion cells. Using isolated and sliced preparations of cat and ferret retina, the light-evoked EPSCs of X cells were isolated by adding picrotoxin and strychnine to the bath to remove synaptic inhibition. N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors contribute significantly to the light-evoked EPSCs of ON- and OFF-X cells at many different holding potentials. An NMDA receptor contribution to the EPSCs was observable when retinal synaptic inhibition was either normally present or pharmacologically blocked. NMDA receptors formed 80% of the peak light-evoked EPSC at a holding potential of -40 mV; however, even at -80 mV, 20% of the light-evoked EPSC was NMDA-mediated. An alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptor-mediated component to the light-evoked EPSCs predominated at a holding potential of -80 mV. The light-evoked EPSC was blocked by the AMPA receptor-selective antagonist GYKI52466 (50-100 microM). The AMPA receptor-mediated EPSC component had a linear current-voltage relation. AMPA receptors form the main non-NMDA EAAR current on both ON- and OFF- X ganglion cell dendrites. When synaptic transmission was blocked by the addition of Cd(2+) to the Ringer, application of kainate directly to ganglion cells evoked excitatory currents that were strongly blocked by GYKI52466. Experiments using selective EAAR modulators showed the AMPA receptor-selective modulator cyclothiazide potentiated glutamate-evoked currents on X cells, while the kainate receptor-selective modulator concanavalin A (ConA) had no effect on kainate-evoked currents. Whereas the present study confirms the general notion that AMPA EAAR-mediated currents are transient and NMDA receptor-mediated currents are sustained, current-voltage relations of the light-evoked EPSC at different time points showed the contributions of these two receptor types significantly overlap. Both NMDA and AMPA EAARs can transmit transient and sustained visual signals in X ganglion cells, suggesting that much signal shaping occurs presynaptically in bipolar cells.

Interactions of inhibition and excitation in the light-evoked currents of X type retinal ganglion cells

The excitatory and inhibitory conductances driving the light-evoked currents (LECs) of cat and ferret ON- and OFF-center X ganglion cells were examined in sliced and isolated retina preparations using center spot stimulation in tetrodotoxin (TTX)-containing Ringer. ON-center X ganglion cells showed an increase in an excitatory conductance reversed positive to +20 mV during the spot stimulus. At spot offset, a transient inhibitory conductance was activated on many cells that reversed near ECl. OFF-center X ganglion cells showed increases in a sustained inhibitory conductance that reversed near ECl during spot stimulation. At spot offset, an excitatory conductance was activated that reversed positive to +20 mV. The light-evoked current kinetics of ON- and OFF-center X cells to spot stimulation did not significantly differ in form from their Y cell counterparts in TTX Ringer. When inhibition was blocked, current-voltage relations of the light-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) of both ON- and OFF-X cells were L-shaped and reversed near 0 mV. The EPSCs averaged between 300 and 500 pA at -80 mV. The metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist 2-amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid (APB), was used to block ON-center bipolar cell function. The LECs of ON-X ganglion cells were totally blocked in APB at all holding potentials. APB caused prominent reductions in the dark holding current and synaptic noise of ON-X cells. In contrast, the LECs of OFF-X ganglion cells remained in APB. An increase in the dark holding current was observed. The excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist combination of D-amino-5-phosphono-pentanoic acid (D-AP5) and 2, 3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoyl-benzo-(F)-quinoxalinedione (NBQX) was used to block ionotropic glutamate receptor retinal neurotransmission. The LECs of all ON-X ganglion cells were totally blocked, and their holding currents were reduced similar to the actions of APB. For OFF-X ganglion cells, the antagonist combination always blocked the excitatory current at light-OFF; however, in many cells, the inhibitory current at light-ON remained. ON-center X ganglion cells receive active excitation during center illumination, and a transient inhibition at light-OFF. In contrast OFF-center X ganglion cells experience a sustained active inhibition during center illumination, and a shorter increase in excitation at light-offset. Cone bipolar cells provide a resting level of glutamate release on X ganglion cells on which their light-evoked currents are superimposed [corrected].

Lower-level visual processing and models of light adaptation

Before there was a formal discipline of psychology, there were attempts to understand the relationship between visual perception and retinal physiology. Today, there is still uncertainty about the extent to which even very basic behavioral data (called here candidates for lower-level processing) can be predicted based upon retinal processing. Here, a general framework is proposed for developing models of lower-level processing. It is argued that our knowledge of ganglion cell function and retinal mechanisms has advanced to the point where a model of lower-level processing should include a testable model of ganglion cell function. This model of ganglion cell function, combined with minimal assumptions about the role of the visual cortex, forms a model of lower-level processing. Basic behavioral and physiological descriptions of light adaptation are reviewed, and recent attempts to model lower-level processing are discussed.

Hyperpolarizing, small-field, amacrine cells in cone pathways of cat retina

Intracellular recording and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) staining of amacrine cells in the isolated arterially perfused cat retina have revealed examples of small-field cells that hyperpolarize to light. Two were examined in detailed electron microscopic reconstructions to determine patterns of synaptic relationships within the inner plexiform layer (IPL). The cells were morphologically similar to A8 and A13 types as described in Golgi-impregnated material (Kolb et al. [1981] Vision Res. 21:1081-1114). Both types received ribbon synaptic input from rod and cone bipolar cells. The latter input was numerically predominant, occurred in both a and b sublaminae of the IPL, and arose from at least three cone bipolar types. Reciprocal synapses were evident between A13 cells and cone bipolar cells. Amacrine input occurred throughout the dendritic tree of both A8 and A13 types, and numerically exceeded bipolar cell input for A13. Gap junctions between stained, and similar-appearing unstained dendritic profiles were observed for both amacrine types. In addition, A8 engaged in gap junctions with cone bipolar profiles in sublamina b which also provided ribbon input. Synaptic output for both amacrine types occurred primarily upon amacrine and ganglion cells in sublamina a. Both cells were presynaptic upon single OFF-center beta ganglion cells running through the middle of their dendritic trees. Mixtures of rod and cone signals were found in the centrally evoked hyperpolarizations of each type. Center mechanism space constants of such types ranged from 100 to 400 microns, with antagonistic surround in 1 of 5 cases. Dopamine (250 microM) reduced receptive field space constants by one-third in one case. The synaptic organization and potential circuitry implications of these cone system-dominated amacrine types are compared and contrasted to the better-known AII and A17 types previously described for the rod system.

Evidence that vesicles on the synaptic ribbon of retinal bipolar neurons can be rapidly released

We relate the ultrastructure of the giant bipolar synapse in goldfish retina to the jump in capacitance that accompanies depolarization-evoked exocytosis. Mean vesicle diameter is 29 +/- 4 nm, giving 26.4 aF/vesicle, so the maximum evoked capacitance (150 fF within 200 ms) represents fusion of about 5700 vesicles. Two terminals contained, respectively, 45 and 65 ribbon-type synaptic outputs, and a fully loaded ribbon tethers about 110 vesicles. Thus, the tethered pool, about 6000 vesicles, corresponds to the rapidly released pool. Further, the difference between small and large terminals in number of tethered vesicles matches their difference in capacitance jump. This suggests, within a "fire and reload" model of exocytosis, that the ribbon translocates synaptic vesicles very rapidly to membrane docking sites, supporting a maximum release rate of 500 vesicles/active zone/s, until the population of tethered vesicles is exhausted.

ON-OFF amacrine cells in cat retina

We studied the morphology, photic responses, and synaptic connections of ON-OFF amacrine cells in the cat retina by penetrating them with intracellular electrodes, staining them with horseradish peroxidase, and examining them with the electron microscope. In a sample of seven cells, we found two different morphological types: the A19, which ramifies narrowly in stratum 2 (sublamina a) of the inner plexiform layer, and the A22, which ramifies mostly in stratum 4 (sublamina b) but extends some dendrites to sublamina a. Both of these cell types have axon-like processes that extend > 800 microns from the conventional dendritic arbor. ON-OFF amacrine cells in our sample had receptive fields (1.7 +/- 0.3 mm diameter) that were broader than their dendritic arbors (425 +/- 35 microns diameter) and that extended over the region of axon-like processes. In addition, we found many features in common with ON-OFF amacrine cells in poikilotherm vertebrates: a broad receptive field without surround antagonism, two sizes of spike-like events, narrow dynamic range (1 log unit intensity), and excitatory postsynaptic potentials at light on and light off. Two A19 amacrine cells were examined in the electron microscope: most synaptic inputs (93 and 76%, respectively) to either cell were from amacrine cells, with minor inputs from cone bipolar cells. Synaptic outputs were to bipolar, amacrine, and ganglion cells, including the OFF-alpha cell.