1
|
Dively GP, Hooks CRR. Effects of mowing on the arthropod community in grass buffers and adjacent crop fields. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2024; 117:928-932. [PMID: 38687132 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toae092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Grass buffers are commonly planted along crop borders to filter nutrient and pesticide runoff. These buffers also provide food and shelter for beneficial and herbivorous arthropods and can serve as corridors for their movement into neighboring crops. Mowing is a common maintenance practice to control woody plants in these buffers. Field experiments were conducted to determine whether mowing influences the movement of arthropods into neighboring soybean plantings (Glycine max L) and impacts their abundance in corn (Zea mays var. indentata) the following spring. Results showed that mowing had varying effects on the abundance of herbivores, saprovores, parasitoids, and predators, particularly in the grass buffers. Aerially active arthropods in the plant canopy were more adversely affected by mowing than surface-dwelling arthropods. Mowing significantly reduced grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) density in the buffers, but did not trigger their movement into adjoining soybean fields. Parasitoids, predators, and thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) were dissimilarly affected by mowing, and their responses were influenced by grass type. Altogether, these findings indicate that mowing did not cause notable movement of arthropods from grass buffers into adjoining crops and had minimal effects on the community of beneficial arthropods the following spring. Also, there were no differences in the level of insect feeding injury in crop fields next to mowed and unmowed buffers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Galen P Dively
- Department of Entomology, College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences, University of Maryland, 4112 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Cerruti R R Hooks
- Department of Entomology, College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences, University of Maryland, 4112 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hoffmann H, Peter F, Donath TW, Diekötter T. Landscape- and time-dependent benefits of wildflower areas to ground-dwelling arthropods. Basic Appl Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2021.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
3
|
Smith VR, Vink CJ, Fountain ED, Cruickshank RH, Paterson AM. Niche modelling identifies low rainfall, but not soil type, as an important habitat requirement of the fossorial Australasian trapdoor spider genus
Cantuaria
(Hogg, 1902). AUSTRAL ECOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.13039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Cor J. Vink
- Canterbury Museum ChristchurchNew Zealand
- Department of Pest‐management and Conservation Lincoln University Christchurch New Zealand
| | - Emily D. Fountain
- Peery Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Lab Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison Wisconsin USA
| | - Robert H. Cruickshank
- Department of Pest‐management and Conservation Lincoln University Christchurch New Zealand
| | - Adrian M. Paterson
- Department of Pest‐management and Conservation Lincoln University Christchurch New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
|
5
|
Pinto CM, Pairo PE, Bellocq MI, Filloy J. Different land-use types equally impoverish but differentially preserve grassland species and functional traits of spider assemblages. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10316. [PMID: 33986389 PMCID: PMC8119495 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89658-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Land-use change is one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss by introducing environmental modifications, which excludes native species unable to adapt to the novel conditions. Grasslands are among the most threatened biomes; understanding the influence of different land-use types on native species is crucial to achieving sustainable management policies. We hypothesized that land-use types that partially conserve the original vegetation cover would show higher taxonomic and functional diversity and similarity with native assemblages than land-use types that replace the original vegetation cover. We compared the taxonomic and functional alpha and beta diversity of spider assemblages between soybean crops, eucalypt plantations, and cattle fields with seminatural grasslands. Through null models, we assessed the standardized effect sizes to test differences in the strength of environmental filtering among land-use types. Environmental changes introduced by different land-use types resulted in assemblages differentiated in species and trait composition, taxonomically and functionally impoverished with respect to seminatural grasslands. All land-use types drove species replacement and trait loss and replacement of grassland spiders. Each land-use showed a characteristic species and trait composition. Most of the grassland traits were not lost but were under or over-represented according to the land-use type. Only in soybean crops the formation of spider communities would be mainly driven by environmental filtering. Changes in land-use decreased species diversity and modified the composition of spider species and functional traits leading to differentiated spider assemblages. As spider species and traits varied among land-uses, a mitigation measure against grasslands biodiversity loss could be the development of productive landscapes with a mosaic of land-use types, as each of them would provide microhabitats for species with different requirements. Because land-use types mainly led to the rearrangement of grassland functional trait values, most of spider functions might be conserved in mosaics of land-use types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolina M Pinto
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética Y Evolución, FCEN, Universidad de Buenos Aires - IEGEBA, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria, Pab 2, piso 4, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Pamela E Pairo
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética Y Evolución, FCEN, Universidad de Buenos Aires - IEGEBA, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria, Pab 2, piso 4, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M Isabel Bellocq
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética Y Evolución, FCEN, Universidad de Buenos Aires - IEGEBA, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria, Pab 2, piso 4, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Julieta Filloy
- Departamento de Ecología, Genética Y Evolución, FCEN, Universidad de Buenos Aires - IEGEBA, CONICET, Ciudad Universitaria, Pab 2, piso 4, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Smith DiCarlo LA, DeBano SJ. Spider Community Variability and Response to Restoration in Arid Grasslands of the Pacific Northwest, USA. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12030249. [PMID: 33809499 PMCID: PMC7998894 DOI: 10.3390/insects12030249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Spiders contribute greatly to biodiversity and play important roles in terrestrial food webs, yet we know very little about the types of spiders that live in semi-arid grasslands in the Pacific Northwest, USA. As interest in the conservation of biodiversity and restoration of these imperiled ecosystems grows, it is imperative that we not only describe spider communities (i.e., groups of interacting species) in these areas, but also investigate environmental factors that influence them, and how they respond to restoration. This information can help guide land managers as they design restoration and management plans. Our goals were threefold: (1) describe variability in spider communities in three semi-arid grasslands of the Pacific Northwest, (2) identify environmental variables that may influence spider communities, and (3) determine whether spiders or environmental variables differ between actively vs. passively restored sites. We found that spider communities varied greatly among three superficially similar locations and patterns corresponded to differences in elevation and cover of invasive grass, litter, biological soil crust, and flowering plants. We found no differences between spider communities in active and passive restoration treatments, indicating that if the primary goal of restoration is to increase biodiversity, additional factors must also be manipulated. Abstract Grassland restoration in North America has intensified but its impact on major invertebrate groups, including spiders, is unclear. We studied three grassland locations in the Pacific Northwest, USA, to (1) describe variability in spider communities, (2) identify environmental variables that may underlie patterns in spider communities, and (3) determine whether spiders and environmental variables differ between actively (removal of disturbances, then plant with natives) vs. passively restored sites (removal of disturbance only). We found spider richness, diversity, and composition differed among the three locations but abundance did not. Sites with more litter and invasive grass cover had more spiders while sites at higher elevation and with more forb and biological soil crust cover had increased spider richness and diversity. Spider community composition was associated with elevation and litter cover. Surprisingly, no spider community or environmental variables differed between actively and passively restored sites, except that litter cover was higher in passively restored sites. This study demonstrates that even in superficially similar locations, invertebrate communities may differ greatly and these differences may prevent consistent responses to active vs. passive restoration. If increasing biodiversity or the abundance of invertebrate prey are goals, then environmental factors influencing spider communities should be taken into account in restoration planning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A. Smith DiCarlo
- Department of Environmental Science, Westfield State University, Westfield, MA 01086, USA
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Hermiston, OR 97838, USA
- Correspondence: (L.A.S.D.); (S.J.D.)
| | - Sandra J. DeBano
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Hermiston, OR 97838, USA
- Correspondence: (L.A.S.D.); (S.J.D.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Effects of Temperature Rise on Multi-Taxa Distributions in Mountain Ecosystems. DIVERSITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/d12060210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mountain biodiversity is associated with rare and fragile biota that are highly sensitive to climate change. To estimate the vulnerability of biodiversity to temperature rise, long-term field data are crucial. Species distribution models are an essential tool, in particular for invertebrates, for which detailed information on spatial and temporal distributions is largely missing. We applied presence-only distribution models to field data obtained from a systematic survey of 5 taxa (birds, butterflies, carabids, spiders, staphylinids), monitored in the northwestern Italian Alps. We estimated the effects of a moderate temperature increase on the multi-taxa distributions. Only small changes in the overall biodiversity patterns emerged, but we observed significant differences between groups of species and along the altitudinal gradient. The effects of temperature increase could be more pronounced for spiders and butterflies, and particularly detrimental for high-altitude species. We observed significant changes in community composition and species richness, especially in the alpine belt, but a clear separation between vegetation levels was retained also in the warming scenarios. Our conservative approach suggests that even a moderate temperature increase (about 1 °C) could influence animal biodiversity in mountain ecosystems: only long-term field data can provide the information to improve quantitative predictions, allowing us to readily identify the most informative signals of forthcoming changes.
Collapse
|
8
|
Rosas-Ramos N, Baños-Picón L, Tormos J, Asís JD. Farming system shapes traits and composition of spider assemblages in Mediterranean cherry orchards. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8856. [PMID: 32274269 PMCID: PMC7130109 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Habitat properties, including crop type, farming system, management practices, or topographic features such as the hillside aspect, may act as environmental filters that select organisms sharing traits compatible with those conditions. The more environmentally-friendly management practices implemented in organic farming seem to benefit a range of taxa, but the extent of those benefits is not well understood. In cherry orchards of the Jerte Valley (Extremadura, western Spain), we explored the response of spider assemblages to the farming system (organic and conventional) and the hillside aspect (sunny or shady) from a taxonomical, behavioral, and morphological perspective. Spiders from both the canopy and soil surface were collected and identified to family. According to their foraging strategy, spiders were sorted in guilds and, for a selected family in each guild, body size was measured on each captured individual. Spider traits and composition were determined by local factors derived from farming system, and by climate conditions associated to the hillside aspect. In taxonomical terms, spiders benefit from organic farming and by the shady aspect. However, from a behavioral perspective, spiders with different foraging strategies exhibit strong variations in their response to the evaluated factors. From a morphological perspective, body size within guilds is differently conditioned by management practices that constitute conditioning disturbance events for each guild, resulting in selecting small individuals. The observed differences in taxonomical, behavioral, and morphological responses of spider communities to habitat properties highlight the importance of examining their assemblages from different perspectives when assessing how they respond to changes in management practices and topographic features.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Rosas-Ramos
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Laura Baños-Picón
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - José Tormos
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Josep D Asís
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Hou PCL, Chien HC, Liu RT, Steinberger Y. Litter Spider Communities and their Effects on Invertebrate Fauna and Decomposing Rates in Nanjenshan Rain Forest, Taiwan. POLISH JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.3161/15052249pje2019.67.3.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Chun Lucy Hou
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Chiang Chien
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ren-Tao Liu
- Key Laboratory for Restoration and Reconstruction of Degraded Ecosystem in Northwestern China of Ministry of Education, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China
| | - Yosef Steinberger
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 5290002, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Duan M, Hu W, Liu Y, Yu Z, Li X, Wu P, Zhang F, Shi H, Baudry J. The influence of landscape alterations on changes in ground beetle (Carabidae) and spider (Araneae) functional groups between 1995 and 2013 in an urban fringe of China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 689:516-525. [PMID: 31279198 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Revised: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Urbanization is one of the main causes of land use change, especially from 1990 to now in China, but knowledge of its effect on different functional groups of carabids and spiders in the adjacent rural areas over time remains limited. We assessed whether landscape alterations (1993 versus 2013) drove changes in carabid and spider functional groups (1995 versus 2013) in an agricultural landscape located on the fringe of a rapidly growing city in China. Although built-up land increased from 6.3% to 32% across the whole landscape, the overall species richness of carabids and spiders did not decline. In contrast to the reduction in species richness of large carabids, the species richness of small carabids increased. Species richness of both large and small spiders increased. The species composition of carabids and spiders significantly changed between 1995 and 2013. Species compositions of large, predatory carabids and large or ground-hunting spiders were more sensitive to the changes in built-up land than those of small, omnivorous carabids and small or web-building spiders. The amount of grassland (abandoned land covered by wild grass) also increased as farmers began to work in the city. The increased grassland significantly contributed to the increased species richness of predatory and macropterous carabids. However, increased landscape diversity did not affect species richness of either carabids or spiders. High landscape diversity was related to reduction in field size, resulting in a decrease in the mean body size of carabids. This indicates that evaluating the effect of landscape change on carabid and spider diversity should be based on their functional traits. Different taxa, even different functional groups, have different responses to landscape change. The increase in built-up land did not immediately reduce species richness at the urban fringe. Increasing wild grasslands and combining smaller fields may benefit farmland biodiversity in this region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meichun Duan
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; SAD Paysage, National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA), Rennes 35042, France
| | - Wenhao Hu
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yunhui Liu
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhenrong Yu
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Xiang Li
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Panlong Wu
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071000, China
| | - Hongliang Shi
- The College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100086, China
| | - Jacques Baudry
- SAD Paysage, National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA), Rennes 35042, France
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Ground crab spiders (Thomisidae: Xysticus) more abundant in grasslands invaded by cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae). Biol Invasions 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-019-01926-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
12
|
Michalko R, Pekár S, Entling MH. An updated perspective on spiders as generalist predators in biological control. Oecologia 2018; 189:21-36. [PMID: 30535723 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4313-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The role of generalist predators in biological control remains controversial as they may not only reduce pest populations but also disrupt biocontrol exerted by other natural enemies. Here, we focus on spiders as a model group of generalist predators. They are among the most abundant and most diverse natural enemies in agroecosystems. We review their functional traits that influence food-web dynamics and pest suppression at organisational levels ranging from individuals to communities. At the individual and population levels, we focus on hunting strategy, body size, life stage, nutritional target, and personality (i.e., consistent inter-individual differences in behaviour). These functional traits determine the spider trophic niches. We also focus on the functional and numerical response to pest densities and on non-consumptive effects of spiders on pests. At the community level, we review multiple-predator effects and effect of alternative prey on pest suppression. Evidence for a key role of spiders in pest suppression is accumulating. Importantly, recent research has highlighted widespread non-consumptive effects and complex intraguild interactions of spiders. A better understanding of these effects is needed to optimize biocontrol services by spiders in agroecosystems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Radek Michalko
- Department of Forest Ecology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 3, 613 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin H Entling
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, Fortstrasse 7, 76829, Landau/Pfalz, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Smith DiCarlo LA, DeBano SJ. Spider community responses to grassland restoration: balancing trade-offs between abundance and diversity. Restor Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.12832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A. Smith DiCarlo
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife; Oregon State University, 104 Nash Hall; Corvallis OR 97333 U.S.A
| | - Sandra J. DeBano
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife; Hermiston Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Oregon State University, 2121 S. 1st Street; Hermiston OR 97838 U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
|
15
|
García-Ruiz E, Loureiro Í, Farinós GP, Gómez P, Gutiérrez E, Sánchez FJ, Escorial MC, Ortego F, Chueca MC, Castañera P. Weeds and ground-dwelling predators' response to two different weed management systems in glyphosate-tolerant cotton: A farm-scale study. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191408. [PMID: 29351549 PMCID: PMC5774765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of glyphosate, as a post-emergence broad-spectrum herbicide in genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant (GT) cotton, supposes a big change in weed management programs with respect to a conventional regime. Thus, alterations in arable flora and arthropod fauna must be considered when evaluating their potential impacts. A 3-year farm-scale study was conducted in a 2-ha GT cotton crop, in southern Spain, to compare the effects of conventional and glyphosate herbicide regimes on weed abundance and diversity and their consequences for ground-dwelling predators. Surveys reveal that weed density was relatively low within all treatments with a few dominant species, with significantly higher weed densities and modifications of the floristic composition in glyphosate-treated plots that led to an increase in the abundance of Portulaca oleracea and to a reduction in plant diversity. The activity-density of the main predatory arthropod taxa (spiders, ground beetles, rove beetles and earwigs) varied among years, but no significant differences were obtained between conventional and glyphosate herbicide regimes. However, significant differences between treatments were obtained for ground beetles species richness and diversity, being higher under the glyphosate herbicide regime, and a positive correlation with weed density could be established for both parameters. The implications of these findings to weed control in GT cotton are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Esteban García-Ruiz
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio de Malherbología, Madrid, Spain
| | - Íñigo Loureiro
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio de Malherbología, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gema P. Farinós
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Departamento de Biología Medioambiental, Laboratorio de Interacción Planta–Insecto, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pablo Gómez
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio de Malherbología, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Gutiérrez
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio de Malherbología, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Sánchez
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio de Malherbología, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Concepción Escorial
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio de Malherbología, Madrid, Spain
| | - Félix Ortego
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Departamento de Biología Medioambiental, Laboratorio de Interacción Planta–Insecto, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Cristina Chueca
- Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Departamento de Protección Vegetal, Laboratorio de Malherbología, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pedro Castañera
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Departamento de Biología Medioambiental, Laboratorio de Interacción Planta–Insecto, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
The Araneae of Svalbard: the relationships between specific environmental factors and spider assemblages in the High Arctic. Polar Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-017-2247-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
17
|
Rigal F, Cardoso P, Lobo JM, Triantis KA, Whittaker RJ, Amorim IR, Borges PAV. Functional traits of indigenous and exotic ground-dwelling arthropods show contrasting responses to land-use change in an oceanic island, Terceira, Azores. DIVERS DISTRIB 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.12655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- François Rigal
- Azorean Biodiversity Group; cE3c - Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente; Universidade dos Açores; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- CNRS-Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour; Institut des Sciences Analytiques et de Physico-Chimie pour l'Environnement et les Materiaux; MIRA, Environment and Microbiology Team; UMR 5254; BP 1155; Pau France
| | - Pedro Cardoso
- Azorean Biodiversity Group; cE3c - Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente; Universidade dos Açores; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- Finnish Museum of Natural History; University of Helsinki; Helsinki Finland
| | - Jorge M. Lobo
- Departament of Biogeography and Global Change; Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC); Madrid Spain
| | - Kostas A. Triantis
- Azorean Biodiversity Group; cE3c - Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente; Universidade dos Açores; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- Department of Ecology and Taxonomy; Faculty of Biology; National and Kapodistrian University of Athens; Athens Greece
| | - Robert J. Whittaker
- Conservation Biogeography and Macroecology Programme; School of Geography and the Environment; University of Oxford; Oxford UK
- Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate; Department of Biology; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Isabel R. Amorim
- Azorean Biodiversity Group; cE3c - Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente; Universidade dos Açores; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
| | - Paulo A. V. Borges
- Azorean Biodiversity Group; cE3c - Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
- Departamento de Ciências e Engenharia do Ambiente; Universidade dos Açores; Angra do Heroísmo Azores Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Davies TW, Bennie J, Cruse D, Blumgart D, Inger R, Gaston KJ. Multiple night-time light-emitting diode lighting strategies impact grassland invertebrate assemblages. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2017; 23:2641-2648. [PMID: 28139040 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
White light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are rapidly replacing conventional outdoor lighting technologies around the world. Despite rising concerns over their impact on the environment and human health, the flexibility of LEDs has been advocated as a means of mitigating the ecological impacts of globally widespread outdoor night-time lighting through spectral manipulation, dimming and switching lights off during periods of low demand. We conducted a three-year field experiment in which each of these lighting strategies was simulated in a previously artificial light naïve grassland ecosystem. White LEDs both increased the total abundance and changed the assemblage composition of adult spiders and beetles. Dimming LEDs by 50% or manipulating their spectra to reduce ecologically damaging wavelengths partially reduced the number of commoner species affected from seven to four. A combination of dimming by 50% and switching lights off between midnight and 04:00 am showed the most promise for reducing the ecological costs of LEDs, but the abundances of two otherwise common species were still affected. The environmental consequences of using alternative lighting technologies are increasingly well established. These results suggest that while management strategies using LEDs can be an effective means of reducing the number of taxa affected, averting the ecological impacts of night-time lighting may ultimately require avoiding its use altogether.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Davies
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Jonathan Bennie
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Dave Cruse
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Dan Blumgart
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Richard Inger
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Kevin J Gaston
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Arthropod diversity and assemblage structure response to deforestation and desertification in the Sahel of western Senegal. Glob Ecol Conserv 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
|
20
|
Lindenmayer DB, Candy SG, MacGregor CI, Banks SC, Westgate M, Ikin K, Pierson J, Tulloch A, Barton P. Do temporal changes in vegetation structure additional to time since fire predict changes in bird occurrence? ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2016; 26:2267-2279. [PMID: 27755726 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Revised: 01/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Fire is a major ecological process in ecosystems globally. Its impacts on fauna can be both direct (e.g., mortality) and indirect (e.g., altered habitat), resulting in population recovery being driven by several possible mechanisms. Separating direct from indirect impacts of fire on faunal population recovery can be valuable in guiding management of biodiversity in fire-prone environments. However, resolving the influence of direct and indirect processes remains a key challenge because many processes affecting fauna can change concomitantly with time since fire. We explore the mechanisms influencing bird response to fire by posing the question, can temporal changes in vegetation structure predict changes in bird occurrence on sites, and can these be separated from other temporal changes using the surrogate of time since fire? We conducted a 12-yr study of bird and vegetation responses to fire at 124 sites across six vegetation classes in Booderee National Park, Australia. Approximately half of these sites, established in 2002, were burned by a large (>3000 ha) wildfire in 2003. To disentangle collinear effects of temporal changes in vegetation and direct demographic effects on population recovery that are subsumed by time since fire, we incorporated both longitudinal and cross-sectional vegetation effects in addition to time since fire within logistic structural equation models. We identified temporal changes in vegetation structure and richness of plant and bird species that characterized burned and unburned sites in all vegetation classes. For nine bird species, a significant component of the year trend was driven by temporal trends in one of three vegetation variables (number of understory or midstory plant species, or midstory cover). By contrast, we could not separate temporal effects between time since fire and vegetation attributes for bird species richness, reporting rate, and the occurrence of 11 other bird species. Our findings help identify species for which indirect effects of vegetation dominate recovery and thus may benefit from vegetation management where conservation actions are required and, conversely, those species for which direct effects of time since fire drive recovery, where simply leaving a system to recover following the last disturbance will be sufficient.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David B Lindenmayer
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia.
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia.
- National Environmental Science Program, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia.
- Long-Term Ecological Research Network, Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia.
| | - Steven G Candy
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
- SCandy Statistical Consulting, 70 Burwood Drive, Blackmans Bay, Tasmania, 7052, Australia
| | - Christopher I MacGregor
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
- National Environmental Science Program, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
- Long-Term Ecological Research Network, Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
| | - Sam C Banks
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
| | - Martin Westgate
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
| | - Karen Ikin
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
- National Environmental Science Program, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
| | - Jennifer Pierson
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
| | - Ayesha Tulloch
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
- National Environmental Science Program, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
| | - Philip Barton
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
The role of plant fidelity and land-use changes on island exotic and indigenous canopy spiders at local and regional scales. Biol Invasions 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-016-1162-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
22
|
Torres VM, González-Reyes AX, Rodriguez-Artigas SM, Corronca JA. Efectos del disturbio antrópico sobre las poblaciones de Leprolochus birabeni (Araneae, Zodariidae) en el Chaco Seco del noroeste de Argentina. IHERINGIA. SERIE ZOOLOGIA 2016. [DOI: 10.1590/1678-4766e2016009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
RESUMEN Se conoce poco sobre la biología y la ecología de la especie mirmecófaga Leprolochus birabeni Mello-Leitão, 1942 (Zodariidae), el único representante de este género en la Argentina. Esta especie es típica de ambientes áridos del norte del país, y su estudio en el Chaco Seco es relevante, por ser una ecorregión altamente perturbada con uno de los pocos bosques subtropicales secos del mundo. El objetivo de este trabajo es estudiar la demografía de la especie teniendo en cuenta su variación estacional en ambientes nativos, y sí la ganadería y la agricultura, dos de las actividades antropogénicas más comunes de la ecorregión Chaco Seco en la provincia de Salta (Argentina) producen cambios en sus poblaciones. Se consideraron tres tipos de ambientes: nativo (NA); afectados por el ganado vacuno y caprino (NP); y afectados por la agricultura (NC). Este último correspondió a parches de vegetación nativa en medio de una matriz agrícola. En cada tipo de ambiente se consideraron tres sitios de muestreo donde se realizaron muestreos estacionales utilizando trampas de caída durante el otoño, invierno y primavera de 2006 y el verano de 2007. Se recolectaron 549 ejemplares de L. birabeni , siendo la mayoría juveniles con el 64,12% de la abundancia total, seguidos por machos (26,41%) y hembras (9,47%). A nivel de paisaje, la primavera presentó el mayor número de individuos, llegando al 44,99% de la abundancia total; mientras que el otoño mostró el porcentaje más bajo (7,83%). El incremento de los juveniles durante el invierno podría indicar una adaptación de los estadios de desarrollo a las condiciones ambientales. El mismo patrón se observó en ambientes NA y NC, pero no en los NP. Estos últimos mostraron una disminución en la abundancia de adultos a lo largo del año; mientras que las poblaciones NC mostraron un incremento en la abundancia de los machos durante la primavera, con una fuerte reducción de las hembras y los juveniles durante todo el año. La abundancia de L. birabeni en ambientes NA fue mayor (41,06% de la abundancia total), siendo los valores mínimos registrados en NC (24,67%). Las dos actividades antropogénicas más comunes que afectan al Chaco Seco de la provincia de Salta modifican tanto los cambios estacionales como la representación de las diferentes etapas de desarrollo y sexos de las poblaciones nativas de L. birabeni , siendo la modificación de los ambientes nativos por la agricultura, el factor más perjudicial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Víctor M. Torres
- Universidad Nacional de Salta, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | | | - Sandra M. Rodriguez-Artigas
- Universidad Nacional de Salta, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - José A. Corronca
- Universidad Nacional de Salta, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Liu W, Zhang J, Norris SL, Murray PJ. Impact of Grassland Reseeding, Herbicide Spraying and Ploughing on Diversity and Abundance of Soil Arthropods. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1200. [PMID: 27555863 PMCID: PMC4977627 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In order to determine the interactive effect of reseeding, herbicide spraying and ploughing on soil fauna communities, we conducted a grassland reseeding experiment combined with pre-reseed management to examine how with the whole reseeding process affects soil faunal composition. Sampling occasions and exact treatments were as follows: (1) before chemical herbicide spray; (2) after spray but before ploughing; (3) after ploughing but before reseeding; and (4) after 1 year of recovery. Our results demonstrate that, Acari and Collembola were the two soil fauna taxa with the highest abundance and accounted for around 96% of the relative total abundance among the various managements. Herbicide application tended to increase soil invertebrate abundance. Conversely, subsequent ploughing significantly reduced soil invertebrate abundance and had an obvious negative effect on soil primary and secondary decomposers, which were mainly due to the variations of Acari (especially Oribatida) and Coleoptera group abundance. Moreover, reseeding also reduced the individual number of the groups mentioned above, and favored those predators with a larger body size and individual weight. After 1 year recovery, Collembola abundance recovered to the pre-treatment levels, while with Arthropod and Acari groups were still fluctuating.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Jiangxi Typical Trees Cultivation and Utilization, Jiangxi Agricultural UniversityNanchang, China
- Sustainable Soil and Grassland Systems, Rothamsted ResearchOkehampton UK
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Junling Zhang
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Stuart L. Norris
- Sustainable Soil and Grassland Systems, Rothamsted ResearchOkehampton UK
| | - Philip J. Murray
- Sustainable Soil and Grassland Systems, Rothamsted ResearchOkehampton UK
- *Correspondence: Philip J. Murray,
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Clayton J, Bull CM. The impact of sheep grazing on burrows for pygmy bluetongue lizards and on burrow digging spiders. J Zool (1987) 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Clayton
- School of Biological Sciences Flinders University Adelaide SA Australia
| | - C. M. Bull
- School of Biological Sciences Flinders University Adelaide SA Australia
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Otoshi MD, Bichier P, Philpott SM. Local and Landscape Correlates of Spider Activity Density and Species Richness in Urban Gardens. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2015; 44:1043-1051. [PMID: 26314049 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvv098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/14/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Urbanization is a major threat to arthropod biodiversity and abundance due to reduction and loss of suitable natural habitat. Green spaces and small-scale agricultural areas may provide habitat and resources for arthropods within densely developed cities. We studied spider activity density (a measure of both abundance and degree of movement) and diversity in urban gardens in Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, and Monterey counties in central California, USA. We sampled for spiders with pitfall traps and sampled 38 local site characteristics for 5 mo in 19 garden sites to determine the relative importance of individual local factors. We also analyzed 16 landscape variables at 500-m and 1-km buffers surrounding each garden to determine the significance of landscape factors. We identified individuals from the most common families to species and identified individuals from other families to morphospecies. Species from the families Lycosidae and Gnaphosidae composed 81% of total adult spider individuals. Most of the significant factors that correlated with spider activity density and richness were local rather than landscape factors. Spider activity density and richness increased with mulch cover and flowering plant species, and decreased with bare soil. Thus, changes in local garden management have the potential to promote diversity of functionally important spiders in urban environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle D Otoshi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064
| | - Peter Bichier
- Department of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064
| | - Stacy M Philpott
- Department of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Foster CN, Barton PS, Wood JT, Lindenmayer DB. Interactive effects of fire and large herbivores on web-building spiders. Oecologia 2015; 179:237-48. [PMID: 25935217 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3323-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Altered disturbance regimes are a major driver of biodiversity loss worldwide. Maintaining or re-creating natural disturbance regimes is therefore the focus of many conservation programmes. A key challenge, however, is to understand how co-occurring disturbances interact to affect biodiversity. We experimentally tested for the interactive effects of prescribed fire and large macropod herbivores on the web-building spider assemblage of a eucalypt forest understorey and investigated the role of vegetation in mediating these effects using path analysis. Fire had strong negative effects on the density of web-building spiders, which were partly mediated by effects on vegetation structure, while negative effects of large herbivores on web density were not related to changes in vegetation. Fire amplified the effects of large herbivores on spiders, both via vegetation-mediated pathways and by increasing herbivore activity. The importance of vegetation-mediated pathways and fire-herbivore interactions differed for web density and richness and also differed between web types. Our results demonstrate that for some groups of web-building spiders, the effects of co-occurring disturbance drivers may be mostly additive, whereas for other groups, interactions between drivers can amplify disturbance effects. In our study system, the use of prescribed fire in the presence of high densities of herbivores could lead to reduced densities and altered composition of web-building spiders, with potential cascading effects through the arthropod food web. Our study highlights the importance of considering both the independent and interactive effects of disturbances, as well as the mechanisms driving their effects, in the management of disturbance regimes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C N Foster
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Acton, ACT, 2601, Australia,
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Sas-Kovács ÉH, Urák I, Sas-Kovács I, Covaciu-Marcov SD, Rákosy L. Winter-active wolf spiders (Araneae: Lycosidae) in thermal habitats from western Romania. J NAT HIST 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2014.909070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
28
|
Dennis P, Skartveit J, Kunaver A, McCracken DI. The response of spider (Araneae) assemblages to structural heterogeneity and prey abundance in sub-montane vegetation modified by conservation grazing. Glob Ecol Conserv 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2015.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
|
29
|
Burkman CE, Gardiner MM. Spider assemblages within greenspaces of a deindustrialized urban landscape. Urban Ecosyst 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-014-0430-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
30
|
Davis SC, Burkle LA, Cross WF, Cutting KA. The effects of timing of grazing on plant and arthropod communities in high-elevation grasslands. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110460. [PMID: 25338008 PMCID: PMC4206520 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Livestock grazing can be used as a key management tool for maintaining healthy ecosystems. However, the effectiveness of using grazing to modify habitat for species of conservation concern depends on how the grazing regime is implemented. Timing of grazing is one grazing regime component that is less understood than grazing intensity and grazer identity, but is predicted to have important implications for plant and higher trophic level responses. We experimentally assessed how timing of cattle grazing affected plant and arthropod communities in high-elevation grasslands of southwest Montana to better evaluate its use as a tool for multi-trophic level management. We manipulated timing of grazing, with one grazing treatment beginning in mid-June and the other in mid-July, in two experiments conducted in different grassland habitat types (i.e., wet meadow and upland) in 2011 and 2012. In the upland grassland experiment, we found that both early and late grazing treatments reduced forb biomass, whereas graminoid biomass was only reduced with late grazing. Grazing earlier in the growing season versus later did not result in greater recovery of graminoid or forb biomass as expected. In addition, the density of the most ubiquitous grassland arthropod order (Hemiptera) was reduced by both grazing treatments in upland grasslands. A comparison of end-of-season plant responses to grazing in upland versus wet meadow grasslands revealed that grazing reduced graminoid biomass in the wet meadow and forb biomass in the upland, irrespective of timing of grazing. Both grazing treatments also reduced end-of-season total arthropod and Hemiptera densities and Hemiptera biomass in both grassland habitat types. Our results indicate that both early and late season herbivory affect many plant and arthropod characteristics in a similar manner, but grazing earlier may negatively impact species of conservation concern requiring forage earlier in the growing season.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stacy C. Davis
- Department of Ecology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Laura A. Burkle
- Department of Ecology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Wyatt F. Cross
- Department of Ecology, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United States of America
| | - Kyle A. Cutting
- Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Lima, Montana, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Simons NK, Gossner MM, Lewinsohn TM, Boch S, Lange M, Müller J, Pašalić E, Socher SA, Türke M, Fischer M, Weisser WW. Resource-mediated indirect effects of grassland management on arthropod diversity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107033. [PMID: 25188423 PMCID: PMC4154770 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Intensive land use is a driving force for biodiversity decline in many ecosystems. In semi-natural grasslands, land-use activities such as mowing, grazing and fertilization affect the diversity of plants and arthropods, but the combined effects of different drivers and the chain of effects are largely unknown. In this study we used structural equation modelling to analyse how the arthropod communities in managed grasslands respond to land use and whether these responses are mediated through changes in resource diversity or resource quantity (biomass). Plants were considered resources for herbivores which themselves were considered resources for predators. Plant and arthropod (herbivores and predators) communities were sampled on 141 meadows, pastures and mown pastures within three regions in Germany in 2008 and 2009. Increasing land-use intensity generally increased plant biomass and decreased plant diversity, mainly through increasing fertilization. Herbivore diversity decreased together with plant diversity but showed no response to changes in plant biomass. Hence, land-use effects on herbivore diversity were mediated through resource diversity rather than quantity. Land-use effects on predator diversity were mediated by both herbivore diversity (resource diversity) and herbivore quantity (herbivore biomass), but indirect effects through resource quantity were stronger. Our findings highlight the importance of assessing both direct and indirect effects of land-use intensity and mode on different trophic levels. In addition to the overall effects, there were subtle differences between the different regions, pointing to the importance of regional land-use specificities. Our study underlines the commonly observed strong effect of grassland land use on biodiversity. It also highlights that mechanistic approaches help us to understand how different land-use modes affect biodiversity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nadja K. Simons
- Terrestrial Ecology Research Group, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Martin M. Gossner
- Terrestrial Ecology Research Group, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Thomas M. Lewinsohn
- Department of Animal Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Steffen Boch
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Markus Lange
- Max-Planck-Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany
| | - Jörg Müller
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Esther Pašalić
- Terrestrial Ecology Research Group, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | | | - Manfred Türke
- Terrestrial Ecology Research Group, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| | - Markus Fischer
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Wolfgang W. Weisser
- Terrestrial Ecology Research Group, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technische Universität München, Freising, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Holmquist JG, Schmidt-Gengenbach J, Demetry A. Efficacy of Low and High Complexity Vegetation Treatments for Reestablishing Terrestrial Arthropod Assemblages during Montane Wetland Restoration. Restor Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.12111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey G. Holmquist
- White Mountain Research Center, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability; University of California Los Angeles; 3000 East Line Street Bishop CA 93514 U.S.A
| | - Jutta Schmidt-Gengenbach
- White Mountain Research Center, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability; University of California Los Angeles; 3000 East Line Street Bishop CA 93514 U.S.A
| | - Athena Demetry
- Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks; Three Rivers CA 93271 U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Holmquist JG, Schmidt-Gengenbach J, Ballenger EA. Patch-scale effects of equine disturbance on arthropod assemblages and vegetation structure in subalpine wetlands. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2014; 53:1109-1118. [PMID: 24715003 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-014-0266-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Assessments of vertebrate disturbance to plant and animal assemblages often contrast grazed versus ungrazed meadows or other larger areas of usage, and this approach can be powerful. Random sampling of such habitats carries the potential, however, for smaller, more intensely affected patches to be missed and for other responses that are only revealed at smaller scales to also escape detection. We instead sampled arthropod assemblages and vegetation structure at the patch scale (400-900 m(2) patches) within subalpine wet meadows of Yosemite National Park (USA), with the goal of determining if there were fine-scale differences in magnitude and directionality of response at three levels of grazing intensity. Effects were both stronger and more nuanced than effects evidenced by previous random sampling of paired grazed and ungrazed meadows: (a) greater negative effects on vegetation structure and fauna in heavily used patches, but (b) some positive effects on fauna in lightly grazed patches, suggested by trends for mean richness and total and population abundances. Although assessment of disturbance at either patch or landscape scales should be appropriate, depending on the management question at hand, our patch-scale work demonstrated that there can be strong local effects on the ecology of these wetlands that may not be detected by comparing larger scale habitats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey G Holmquist
- White Mountain Research Center, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California Los Angeles, 3000 East Line Street, Bishop, CA, 93514, USA,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
van Klink R, van der Plas F, van Noordwijk CGET, WallisDeVries MF, Olff H. Effects of large herbivores on grassland arthropod diversity. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2014; 90:347-66. [PMID: 24837856 PMCID: PMC4402009 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Both arthropods and large grazing herbivores are important components and drivers of biodiversity in grassland ecosystems, but a synthesis of how arthropod diversity is affected by large herbivores has been largely missing. To fill this gap, we conducted a literature search, which yielded 141 studies on this topic of which 24 simultaneously investigated plant and arthropod diversity. Using the data from these 24 studies, we compared the responses of plant and arthropod diversity to an increase in grazing intensity. This quantitative assessment showed no overall significant effect of increasing grazing intensity on plant diversity, while arthropod diversity was generally negatively affected. To understand these negative effects, we explored the mechanisms by which large herbivores affect arthropod communities: direct effects, changes in vegetation structure, changes in plant community composition, changes in soil conditions, and cascading effects within the arthropod interaction web. We identify three main factors determining the effects of large herbivores on arthropod diversity: (i) unintentional predation and increased disturbance, (ii) decreases in total resource abundance for arthropods (biomass) and (iii) changes in plant diversity, vegetation structure and abiotic conditions. In general, heterogeneity in vegetation structure and abiotic conditions increases at intermediate grazing intensity, but declines at both low and high grazing intensity. We conclude that large herbivores can only increase arthropod diversity if they cause an increase in (a)biotic heterogeneity, and then only if this increase is large enough to compensate for the loss of total resource abundance and the increased mortality rate. This is expected to occur only at low herbivore densities or with spatio-temporal variation in herbivore densities. As we demonstrate that arthropod diversity is often more negatively affected by grazing than plant diversity, we strongly recommend considering the specific requirements of arthropods when applying grazing management and to include arthropods in monitoring schemes. Conservation strategies aiming at maximizing heterogeneity, including regulation of herbivore densities (through human interventions or top-down control), maintenance of different types of management in close proximity and rotational grazing regimes, are the most promising options to conserve arthropod diversity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R van Klink
- Community and Conservation Ecology Group, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Studies, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Rusch A, Birkhofer K, Bommarco R, Smith HG, Ekbom B. Management intensity at field and landscape levels affects the structure of generalist predator communities. Oecologia 2014; 175:971-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-014-2949-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
36
|
Buchholz S, Hannig K, Schirmel J. Losing uniqueness - shifts in carabid species composition during dry grassland and heathland succession. Anim Conserv 2013; 16:661-670. [PMID: 32313440 PMCID: PMC7159390 DOI: 10.1111/acv.12046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Dry sand ecosystems, such as dry grasslands and heathlands, have suffered habitat loss and degradation due to land‐use changes and are today among the most endangered habitats in Central Europe. To evaluate the impact of degradation processes on habitat quality, we investigated how succession from sparse vegetated sand ecosystems to grass‐invaded and tree‐dominated ecosystems and the environmental parameters associated with it influences carabid assemblages. We also determined to what extent typical xerophilic species assemblages still exist. Pitfall trapping at 28 study sites in northwestern Germany yielded 111 carabid species that were grouped using Kendall's W coefficient of concordance. Ordination revealed that the differences between the four species groups resulted from vegetation cover and soil humidity, indicating that carabid distribution clearly reflects degradation processes. Our results suggest that areas in which succession proceeds were unsuitable for assemblages typical of dry grasslands and heathlands. In all, 35 species are lost due to succession from dry grassland and heathland to grass‐invaded and tree‐dominated sites. We discuss implications for habitat management and restoration, since dry sand ecosystems comprise a very high number of specialized and endangered species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Buchholz
- Department of Ecology Technische Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | | | - J Schirmel
- Ecosystem Analysis Institute of Environmental Science University of Koblenz-Landau Landau Germany
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Varet M, Burel F, Pétillon J. Can urban consolidation limit local biodiversity erosion? Responses from carabid beetle and spider assemblages in Western France. Urban Ecosyst 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-013-0307-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
38
|
Spider trait assembly patterns and resilience under fire-induced vegetation change in South Brazilian grasslands. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60207. [PMID: 23555927 PMCID: PMC3610671 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Disturbances induce changes on habitat proprieties that may filter organism's functional traits thereby shaping the structure and interactions of many trophic levels. We tested if communities of predators with foraging traits dependent on habitat structure respond to environmental change through cascades affecting the functional traits of plants. We monitored the response of spider and plant communities to fire in South Brazilian Grasslands using pairs of burned and unburned plots. Spiders were determined to the family level and described in feeding behavioral and morphological traits measured on each individual. Life form and morphological traits were recorded for plant species. One month after fire the abundance of vegetation hunters and the mean size of the chelicera increased due to the presence of suitable feeding sites in the regrowing vegetation, but irregular web builders decreased due to the absence of microhabitats and dense foliage into which they build their webs. Six months after fire rosette-form plants with broader leaves increased, creating a favourable habitat for orb web builders which became more abundant, while graminoids and tall plants were reduced, resulting in a decrease of proper shelters and microclimate in soil surface to ground hunters which became less abundant. Hence, fire triggered changes in vegetation structure that lead both to trait-convergence and trait-divergence assembly patterns of spiders along gradients of plant biomass and functional diversity. Spider individuals occurring in more functionally diverse plant communities were more diverse in their traits probably because increased possibility of resource exploitation, following the habitat heterogeneity hypothesis. Finally, as an indication of resilience, after twelve months spider communities did not differ from those of unburned plots. Our findings show that functional traits provide a mechanistic understanding of the response of communities to environmental change, especially when more than one trophic level is considered.
Collapse
|
39
|
Effects of a long-term disturbance on arthropods and vegetation in subalpine wetlands: manifestations of pack stock grazing in early versus mid-season. PLoS One 2013; 8:e54109. [PMID: 23308297 PMCID: PMC3538743 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Conclusions regarding disturbance effects in high elevation or high latitude ecosystems based solely on infrequent, long-term sampling may be misleading, because the long winters may erase severe, short-term impacts at the height of the abbreviated growing season. We separated a) long-term effects of pack stock grazing, manifested in early season prior to stock arrival, from b) additional pack stock grazing effects that might become apparent during annual stock grazing, by use of paired grazed and control wet meadows that we sampled at the beginning and end of subalpine growing seasons. Control meadows had been closed to grazing for at least two decades, and meadow pairs were distributed across Sequoia National Park, California, USA. The study was thus effectively a landscape-scale, long-term manipulation of wetland grazing. We sampled arthropods at these remote sites and collected data on associated vegetation structure. Litter cover and depth, percent bare ground, and soil strength had negative responses to grazing. In contrast, fauna showed little response to grazing, and there were overall negative effects for only three arthropod families. Mid-season and long-term results were generally congruent, and the only indications of lower faunal diversity on mid-season grazed wetlands were trends of lower abundance across morphospecies and lower diversity for canopy fauna across assemblage metrics. Treatment x Season interactions almost absent. Thus impacts on vegetation structure only minimally cascaded into the arthropod assemblage and were not greatly intensified during the annual growing season. Differences between years, which were likely a response to divergent snowfall patterns, were more important than differences between early and mid-season. Reliance on either vegetation or faunal metrics exclusively would have yielded different conclusions; using both flora and fauna served to provide a more integrative view of ecosystem response.
Collapse
|
40
|
Hamilton DE, McIntyre NE, Lewellyn D D. Using Implanted Passive Integrated Transponders to Monitor Long-Term Burrow Fidelity in a Theraphosid Spider, Aphonopelma hollyi. SOUTHWEST NAT 2012. [DOI: 10.1894/0038-4909-57.2.144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
41
|
Rosa García R, Ocharan FJ, García U, Osoro K, Celaya R. Arthropod fauna on grassland–heathland associations under different grazing managements with domestic ruminants. C R Biol 2010; 333:226-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crvi.2009.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2009] [Revised: 12/04/2009] [Accepted: 12/06/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
42
|
Gallé R, Torma A. Epigeic spider (Araneae) assemblages of natural forest edges in the Kiskunság (Hungary). COMMUNITY ECOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1556/comec.10.2009.2.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
43
|
Plant invasion phenomenon enhances reproduction performance in an endangered spider. Naturwissenschaften 2009; 96:1241-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-009-0589-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2008] [Revised: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 07/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
44
|
Pöyry J, Luoto M, Paukkunen J, Pykälä J, Raatikainen K, Kuussaari M. Different responses of plants and herbivore insects to a gradient of vegetation height: an indicator of the vertebrate grazing intensity and successional age. OIKOS 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.15126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
45
|
KNOP EVA, KLEIJN DAVID, HERZOG FELIX, SCHMID BERNHARD. Effectiveness of the Swiss agri-environment scheme in promoting biodiversity. J Appl Ecol 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01113.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
46
|
Habitat separation in a species-rich assemblage of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) in a suburban study site in Zimbabwe. J Zool (1987) 2004. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952836903004461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
47
|
Haughton AJ, Champion GT, Hawes C, Heard MS, Brooks DR, Bohan DA, Clark SJ, Dewar AM, Firbank LG, Osborne JL, Perry JN, Rothery P, Roy DB, Scott RJ, Woiwod IP, Birchall C, Skellern MP, Walker JH, Baker P, Browne EL, Dewar AJG, Garner BH, Haylock LA, Horne SL, Mason NS, Sands RJN, Walker MJ. Invertebrate responses to the management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant and conventional spring crops. II. Within-field epigeal and aerial arthropods. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2003; 358:1863-77. [PMID: 14561319 PMCID: PMC1693277 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2003.1408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of the management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant (GMHT) crops on the abundances of aerial and epigeal arthropods were assessed in 66 beet, 68 maize and 67 spring oilseed rape sites as part of the Farm Scale Evaluations of GMHT crops. Most higher taxa were insensitive to differences between GMHT and conventional weed management, but significant effects were found on the abundance of at least one group within each taxon studied. Numbers of butterflies in beet and spring oilseed rape and of Heteroptera and bees in beet were smaller under the relevant GMHT crop management, whereas the abundance of Collembola was consistently greater in all GMHT crops. Generally, these effects were specific to each crop type, reflected the phenology and ecology of the arthropod taxa, were indirect and related to herbicide management. These results apply generally to agriculture across Britain, and could be used in mathematical models to predict the possible long-term effects of the widespread adoption of GMHT technology. The results for bees and butterflies relate to foraging preferences and might or might not translate into effects on population densities, depending on whether adoption leads to forage reductions over large areas. These species, and the detritivore Collembola, may be useful indicator species for future studies of GMHT management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A J Haughton
- Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire AL5 2JQ, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|