Gross for kids but good for parents: differing messages in advertisements for the same products

Revisiting 42 Years of literature on food marketing to children: A morphological analysis

Despite the preventive measures taken by the WHO, childhood obesity is still on the rise and is expected to increase by 100% between 2020 and 2035. Food marketing continues to permeate children's environments in numerous ways and influence the food behaviour of children, thus significantly contributing to the rise of obesity. Studies suggest that the literature on the effects of food marketing on children is complex and multidimensional. To fully understand these effects, a comprehensive and systematic approach is required. Nonetheless, existing reviews have focused only on specific aspects and have not comprehensively covered the literature on food marketing to children. Therefore, this review aims to navigate potential research gaps in the existing literature through a comprehensive examination of the literature by using morphological analysis (MA) methodology, the first time in this domain. Using PRISMA, 202 papers were considered eligible for inclusion and further analysed using MA. The articles were categorised into three dimensions to develop the MA framework: Stimuli (Food well-being), Organism, and Response, and 34 variants. The review has presented future research prospects by identifying at least 218 research gaps. With these findings, researchers can further explore the gaps and develop new research questions that could foster an understanding of the multifarious literature. Moreover, these findings can also provide marketers and practitioners with a better comprehension of the current state of the literature and develop more effective strategies for responsible marketing practices and policies.

Children, Media and Food. A New Paradigm in Food Advertising, Social Marketing and Happiness Management

The growing number of children who are obese or overweight in certain countries or geographical areas is a fact, as evidenced by the continuous studies and reports on the subject, endorsed or carried out by the World Health Organisation and independent research. In this context, food and beverage advertising can contribute to this. The main objective of this research is to evaluate compliance with the Food and Drink Advertising Code for Children (PAOS Code) in Spain and its relationship with nutritional habits on television, specifically on channels aimed at children. The methodology is therefore mixed: on the one hand, a qualitative technique based on discourse analysis and, on the other, a quantitative technique based on the content analysis of the advertising broadcast for seven consecutive days on three specialised channels and two generalist channels on Spanish television. The results reveal a systematic noncompliance with this code, which translates into inadequate eating habits among children. The immediate conclusion is that 9 out of 10 parts of food and drink advertising do not comply with any of the rules of the PAOS Code and that self-regulation by the advertising companies is negligible and insufficient.

Cartoon Characters in Children’s Series: Gender Disparities in Body Weight and Food Consumption

(1) Background: Media play a significant role in forming audience perceptions about physical external appearance and food consumption patterns. It has been reported that children’s cartoons project slimness, and concomitantly consumption of poor nutritional quality food. However, data on the role of gender in this respect are lacking; thus, this was the aim of the present study. (2) Methods: 100 episodes of the 10 most popular cartoon series were analyzed. Characters’ body weight status was classified into underweight, normal weight and overweight, and foods consumed as core (e.g., fruit, vegetables) and non-core (e.g., sweets, snacks). Messages about characters’ attractiveness were recorded and classified according to their body weight status and gender. (3) Results: Out of 37 protagonists, 12 were female figures (32%), while out of the 10 thin protagonists, 7 were females (70%) and only 3 males (30%). Thin heroines were the recipients of the majority of the messages connotative to physical attractiveness (36 out of 58 messages). However, consumption of core and non-core foods did not differ within genders (core: z = −1.526, p = 0.127, non-core: z = −0.417, p = 0.667). (4) Conclusions: Females seem to be underrepresented in cartoon series but receive the majority of the comments related to physical appearance, with most of them addressing the attractiveness of a thin figure.

Food consumption and related messages in animated comic series addressed to children and adolescents

Objective

To analyse the food content in animated comic series addressed to young audiences both in terms of the kinds of foods presented and the cues accompanying them.

Design

One hundred episodes of ten animated cartoon series with high television audience viewing (based on Average Minute Rating %) were reviewed and food items were classified into ten categories. In each episode, food cues (i.e. every mention of food, visual, oral or referring to foods consumed) was noted down and characterized as positive, negative or neutral. The rate of overall consumption and the food categories shown to be consumed were also recorded.

Setting

Greece.

Results

In ninety-four episodes one or more food cues were recorded; the total number of cues was 361, of which 209 referred to cues where food was shown or discussed and 152 referred to food items consumed. Out of the positive cues measured, almost half referred to sweets and snacks (sixty-one out of 125). Nevertheless, the majority of cues were of neutral character (n 213). Snacks, sweets and soft drinks were seen to be consumed in more episodes compared with other food categories. Moreover, in episodes where a higher frequency of food consumption was recorded, then consumption of sweets, snacks and soft drinks was significantly higher, with consumption of soft drinks often occurring in conjunction with that of snacks.

Conclusions

Food cues are present in children’s series, with an emphasis on sweets and snacks, which are projected in an attractive way, whether depicted, discussed or consumed, between cartoon characters.

Children's Food and Beverage Promotion on Television to Parents

BACKGROUND

Nutritionally poor foods are heavily advertised to children on television. Whether those same products are also advertised to parents on television has not been systematically examined.

METHODS

This study is a content analysis of advertisements for children's packaged foods and beverages aired over US network, cable, and syndicated television for 1 year (2012 to 2013). The target audience of each advertisement was defined as children or parents based on advertisement content, where parent-directed advertisements included emotional appeals related to family bonding and love. Advertisement characteristics and patterns of airtime were compared across target audience, and the proportion of total airtime devoted to advertisements targeting parents was computed.

RESULTS

Fifty-one children's food or beverage products were advertised over the study year, 25 (49%) of which were advertised directly to parents. Parent-directed advertisements more often featured nutrition and health messaging and an active lifestyle than child-directed advertisements, whereas child-directed advertisements more frequently highlighted fun and product taste. Over all products, 42.4% of total airtime was devoted to advertisements that targeted parents. The products with the most amount of airtime over the study year were ready-to-eat cereals, sugar-sweetened beverages, and children's yogurt, and the proportion of total advertisement airtime for those products devoted to parents was 24.4%, 72.8%, and 25.8%, respectively.

DISCUSSION

Television advertisements for children's packaged foods and beverages frequently targeted parents with emotional appeals and messaging related to nutrition and health. Findings are of concern if exposure to such advertisements among parents may shape their beliefs about the appropriateness of nutritionally questionable children's foods and beverages.

Beyond Food Promotion: A Systematic Review on the Influence of the Food Industry on Obesity-Related Dietary Behaviour among Children

An increased consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor food and beverages as a result of a changing obesogenic environment contributes substantially to the increasing prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity. This paper reviews the nature and extent of food industry influences which expose children to commercial influences and thus might affect unhealthy dietary behaviour and finally contributes to obesity. A systematic search of nine electronic databases (including PubMed, PsycINFO, EconLit) and reference lists of original studies and reviews using key search terms identified 1900 articles. Of these only thirty-six articles met the inclusion and quality criteria. A narrative synthesis of the reviewed studies revealed six key obesogenic environments by which the food industry possibly influences obesity-related dietary behaviours in young children. These were schools, retailers, mass media “television”, mass media “internet”, home and promotional campaigns. Identifying these obesogenic environments is critical for monitoring and controlling the food industry, the development of effective environmental-level interventions to prevent childhood overweight and obesity and to identify knowledge gaps to be addressed in future research to support informed decisions of policy makers.

The effects of television and Internet food advertising on parents and children

Objective

The current study examined the impact of television and Internet food advertising on Australian parents and children.

Design

Parents and their children aged 8 to 14 years were exposed to a television advertisement, an Internet advertisement or a control picture for four commonly advertised energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods.

Setting

Online web panel survey, Australia.

Subjects

Parents (n1302) and their children aged 8 to 14 years (n1302).

Results

After a single exposure to each advertisement, parent respondents in the two exposure conditions evaluated the products more favourably, had a greater desire to consume the products and thought the product could be consumed more frequently than those in the control condition. Similar trends were observed among children, although the differences were statistically significant only for the frequency of food consumption in the Internet advertisement condition and the evaluation of one product.

Conclusions

The results have implications for assumptions of adults’ immunity to advertising. This is of particular importance in efforts to address child obesity and the reliance on parents to mediate the effects of food advertising.

Art of persuasion: an analysis of techniques used to market foods to children

AIM

Persuasive marketing techniques, such as promotional characters, influence children's food preferences and requests for foods. The aim of this research was to describe the techniques used to market unhealthy foods and beverages to children on Sydney free-to-air television.

METHODS

Marketing techniques designed to appeal to children were identified from international literature and summarised into a systematic coding tool. Using this tool, the marketing techniques used in a random sample of 100 unique food advertisements, broadcasted on Sydney free-to-air television, were coded. Frequency of marketing techniques was analysed overall and for use in advertisements marketing unhealthy foods, emotionally or verbally appealing to parents, or featuring child actors.

RESULTS

Advertisers' use of persuasive techniques generally did not differ by type of food advertised. Marketing techniques with greater prominence in unhealthy food advertising were palatability (54% of unhealthy food advertisements), convenience (52%), fantasy/imagination (28%), fun/happiness (17%) and cartoon characters (9%). Advertisements emotionally appealing to parents (24%) were significantly more likely to make general health or nutrition statements (38% vs. 17%), and appealed to children concurrently through fun/happiness and fantasy/imagination appeals. Children were depicted in advertisements as eating with friends or family, situated within the home and frequently snacking on less healthy foods.

CONCLUSIONS

Food and beverage advertisers use a range of visual, audio and emotive techniques to appeal to children and their parents that do not discriminate by the type of food advertised. The range and complexity of these techniques complicate the restriction of their use in food advertising to children.

An experimental study on the effects of exposure to magazine advertising on children's food choices

Objective

The present study sought to determine the feasibility of an experimental research design to investigate the effects of exposure to magazine advertising on children's food choices.

Design

Children were randomized to read either a magazine with food advertisements or a magazine with no food advertisements. They then chose two food items from the intervention ‘store’ to eat after the session. Data were also collected on attitudes to advertising and snack food preferences. Finally, participants’ parents were provided with a self-completion survey on food choices and other variables (n24).

Setting

Three vacation care centres in regional New South Wales, Australia.

Subjects

Children aged 5–12 years (n47).

Results

Children in the experimental condition were more likely to choose advertised foods than those in the control group. Interestingly, the majority reported taste and healthiness as the most important factors in snack food choices; however, when faced with the actual food choice, they predominantly chose unhealthy foods (eighty-two unhealthy and only twelve healthy items were chosen).

Conclusions

This was the first study to assess the effects on children of exposure to food advertising within the context of reading a child-targeted magazine. Importantly, even with the small sample size and venue limitations, we found that exposure to magazine advertising influenced food choices. Children's magazines are an under-researched and poorly regulated medium, with considerable potential to influence children's food choices. The present study shows that the methodology is feasible, and future studies could replicate this with larger samples.

'Like me, want me, buy me, eat me': relationship-building marketing communications in children's magazines

OBJECTIVE

Television, Internet and print media are saturated with advertisements for unhealthy food that use marketing tactics aimed to build long-term brand loyalty and 'relationships' with children. While research in this area has largely focused on television, the current study examines children's responses to relationship-building marketing communications found in popular children's magazines.

DESIGN

A qualitative study consisting of friendship-pair interviews in which children were interviewed and asked to comment on a range of recent food advertisements.

SETTING

A university-based after-school care programme in New South Wales, Australia.

SUBJECTS

Ten children aged 6-13 years, interviewed in self-selected friendship pairs.

RESULTS

The children reported being attracted to the advertisements because of specific elements of the marketing strategies utilised. Some children were able to recognise the persuasive intent of the media, whereas others did not even identify the pages as advertisements.

CONCLUSIONS

It was clear from the children's responses that these types of relationship-building marketing communications influence children's attitudes towards branded food products and their views on the nutritional value and social meanings of food.