Chromatographic detection of nitroaromatic and nitramine compounds by electrochemical reduction combined with photoluminescence following electron transfer

Chemical reduction as a facile colorimetric approach for selective TNT detection by spectrophotometry and photothermal lens spectroscopy

In this study, the simple determination of TNT is achieved through the vivid stable red color products generated after chemically reduction by NaBH₄ as a common and accessible reducing/colorimetric reagent. Some other nitroaromatics were impressed under reduction reaction and led to the colorful products. The color of these reduced nitroaromatics were unstable and approximately vanished after some few minutes which ameliorated the selectivity in TNT determination. Utilizing the time-dependent selectivity, the method was applied specifically for discriminating of TNT from other nitroaromatic compounds (NACs). UV-vis spectrophotometry and photothermal lens spectrometry were employed as detection techniques. The former was simpler and more available in various laboratories while the latter provides higher sensitivity. It was revealed that the photothermal lens responses were linear from 2.0 to 55.0 nM with a limit of detection (LOD) of about 0.8 nM. The LOD of the photothermal lens measurement were found to be 241 times lower than that of the UV-vis spectrophotometry in TNT quantification. The evolved method was successfully carried out for TNT vapor determination after trapping into the colorimetric reagent. The recoveries and relative standard deviations (RSD, n = 3) calculated for 3 gas samples were ≥91% and ≤7%, respectively.

Unraveling the electron transfer rates of highly crystalline carbon nanowires with surface oxides

In the development of glassy carbon fiber toward graphene fiber, highly crystalline carbon wires have attracted attention. More importantly, a charge cannot be accommodated at the surface of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite as it would be in a metal. In this work, we demonstrate that enhancing the decyanation reaction rate and reducing the nanowire diameter to below the crystallite size (≲50 nm) greatly contribute to the microstructure transformation of carbon from low crystalline glassy carbon to crystalline micro-structure. Using silica surfaces to limit the shrinkage of electrospun nanofibers during oxidation and carbonization, enhances the conversion of alcohol groups to normal carbonyl groups on the surface of the carbon wires derived from PAN fibers deposited with near field electrospinning (NFES). Cyclic voltammograms (CVs) on the carbon nanowires reveal that the enhancement of alcohol groups to normal carbonyl groups slows down the rapid electron transfer on glassy carbon electrodes. Using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), we also establish that the electron transfer on the surface of highly crystalline carbon nanowires almost completely depends on the presence of oxygen groups. The highly crystalline structure of nanoscale carbon wires with a large amount of normal carbonyl groups exhibits an ultra-low electron transfer rate (less than 1.2 μm s^-1), showing the ability to make the charges reside on the highly crystalline carbon nanowires. The straight line in CV allows for EIS measurements at high alternating current voltages, improving upon the non-linearity of traditional electrochemical cells by overcoming the stochastic errors and the lower signal-to-noise ratio for ultra-sensitive biomolecule detection (≤25 mV). The latter could spur the development of a new generation of electrochemical cells and biomedical signal measurements.

Environmental persistence, hazard, and mitigation challenges of nitroaromatic compounds

Nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) are extensively used in different industries and are synthesized in large quantity due to their heavy demand worldwide. The broad use of NACs poses a serious pollution threat. The treatment processes used for the removal of NACs are not effective and sustainable, leading to their release into the environment. The nitro group attached to benzene ring makes the compounds recalcitrant due to which they persist in the environment. Being hazardous to human as well as other living organisms, NACs are listed in the USEPA's priority pollutant group. This review provides updated information on the sources of NACs, prevalence in different environmental matrices, and recent developments in methods of their detection, with emphasis on current trends as well as future prospects. The harmful effects of NACs due to exposure through different routes are also highlighted. Further, the technologies reported for the treatment of NACs, including physico-chemical and biological methods, and the challenges faced for their effective implementation are discussed. Thus, the review discusses relevant issues in detail making suitable recommendations, which can be helpful in guiding further research in this subject.

Electrochemical characterization of riboflavin-enhanced reduction of trinitrotoluene

There is great interest in understanding trinitrotoluene (TNT) and dinitrotoluene (DNT) contamination, detection and remediation in the environment due to TNT’s negative health effects and security implications. Numerous publications have focused on detecting TNT in groundwater using multiple techniques, including electrochemistry. The main degradation pathway of nitrotoluenes in the environment is reduction, frequently with biological and/or photolytic assistance. Riboflavin has also been noted to aid in TNT remediation in soils and groundwater when exposed to light. This report indicates that adding riboflavin to a TNT or DNT solution enhances redox currents in electrochemical experiments. Here AC voltammetry was performed and peak currents compared with and without riboflavin present. Results indicated that TNT, DNT and riboflavin could be detected using AC voltammetry on modified gold electrodes and the addition of riboflavin affected redox peaks of TNT and DNT. Poised potential experiments indicated that it is possible to enhance reduction of TNT in the presence of riboflavin and light. These results were dramatic enough to explain long term enhancement of bioremediation in environments containing high levels of riboflavin and enhance the limit of detection in electrochemically-based nitrotoluene sensing.

Optimization of post-column reactor radius in capillary high performance liquid chromatography Effect of chromatographic column diameter and particle diameter

A post-column reactor consisting of a simple open tube (Capillary Taylor Reactor) affects the performance of a capillary LC in two ways: stealing pressure from the column and adding band spreading. The former is a problem for very small radius reactors, while the latter shows itself for large reactor diameters. We derived an equation that defines the observed number of theoretical plates (N(obs)) taking into account the two effects stated above. Making some assumptions and asserting certain conditions led to a final equation with a limited number of variables, namely chromatographic column radius, reactor radius and chromatographic particle diameter. The assumptions and conditions are that the van Deemter equation applies, the mass transfer limitation is for intraparticle diffusion in spherical particles, the velocity is at the optimum, the analyte's retention factor, k', is zero, the post-column reactor is only long enough to allow complete mixing of reagents and analytes and the maximum operating pressure of the pumping system is used. Optimal ranges of the reactor radius (a(r)) are obtained by comparing the number of observed theoretical plates (and theoretical plates per time) with and without a reactor. Results show that the acceptable reactor radii depend on column diameter, particle diameter, and maximum available pressure. Optimal ranges of a(r) become narrower as column diameter increases, particle diameter decreases or the maximum pressure is decreased. When the available pressure is 4000 psi, a Capillary Taylor Reactor with 12 microm radius is suitable for all columns smaller than 150 microm (radius) packed with 2-5 microm particles. For 1 microm packing particles, only columns smaller than 42.5 microm (radius) can be used and the reactor radius needs to be 5 microm.

Simultaneous determination of biogenic monoamines in rat brain dialysates using capillary high-performance liquid chromatography with photoluminescence following electron transfer

Simultaneous determination of biogenic monoamines such as dopamine, serotonin, and 3-methoxytyramine in brain is important in understanding neurotransmitter activity. This study presents a sensitive determination of biogenic monoamines in rat brain striatum microdialysates using capillary high-performance liquid chromatography with the photoluminescence following electron-transfer detection technique. Separation conditions were optimized by changing the concentration of an ion-interaction agent and the percentage of an organic modifier. The high concentration of ion-interaction agent enabled the amines as a class to be separated from interfering acids, but also made the separation very long. To shorten the separation time, 10% (v/v) acetonitrile was used as the organic modifier. Eight chromatographic runs during a 3-h period were analyzed in terms of retention times, peak heights, and peak widths. Chromatograms are very reproducible, with less than 1% changes in peak height over 3 h. Typical concentration detection limits at the optimum separation conditions were less than 100 pM for metabolic acids and approximately 200 pM for monoamines. The injection volume of the sample was 500 nL. Thus, the mass detection limits were less than 50 amol for metabolic acids and approximately 100 amol for monoamines. Typical separation time was less than 10 min. To validate the technique, the separation method was applied to the observation of drug-induced changes of monoamine concentrations in rat brain microdialysis samples. Local perfusion of tetrodotoxin, a sodium channel blocker, into the striatum of an anesthetized rat decreased dopamine, 3-methoxytyramine, and serotonin concentrations in dialysates. Successive monitoring of striatal dialysates at a temporal resolution of 7.7 min showed that the injection of nomifensine transiently increased dopamine and 3-methoxytyramine concentrations in rat brain dialysate.

Use of tris(2,2'-bipyridine)osmium as a photoluminescence-following electron-transfer reagent for postcolumn detection in capillary high-performance liquid chromatography

The photoluminescence-following electron-transfer (PFET) technique, developed in our laboratory, is a sensitive chromatographic detection method for oxidizable analytes. Because the oxidations are homogeneous, the technique avoids the problem of electrode fouling. A liquid-phase oxidant reacts with the electrochemically active analytes after separation, becoming capable of photoluminescence. Laser-induced photoluminescence is measured to quantitate the analytes. Thus, the electrochemical properties of the oxidant determine the detection selectivity, and the spectroscopic properties define the sensitivity. The properties of tris(2,2'-bipyridine)osmium (1) were investigated for use as the liquid-phase oxidant in the PFET system. The redox potential of the complex is less positive than that of tris(2,2'-bipyridine)ruthenium (2); thus, on-line generation of 1(3+) by reaction with PbO2, and selective oxidation of catechols by 1(3+), was possible. The mild oxidizing power of 1(3+) led to a lower background signal (compared to 2(3+)) when mixed with acidic mobile phases. Photoluminescence from 1(2+) was much weaker than that from 2(2+); nonetheless, the system achieved subnanomolar detection limits for dopamine, 3-methoxytyramine, and serotonin. Dopamine and 3-methoxytyramine in rat brain striatal dialysates were determined before and after the injection of nomifensine. The pH of the mobile phase can govern the detection selectivity, since oxidation of most organics is accompanied by proton transfer. Reaction of 1 with catechols showed pH-dependent sensitivity resulting from pH-dependent reaction rate changes. Since the reaction rate is also temperature dependent, increased temperature at the mixer resulted in higher sensitivity. However, the noise level also increased at elevated temperature; thus, the detection limit did not improve.

Influence of chemical kinetics on postcolumn reaction in a capillary Taylor reactor with catechol analytes and photoluminescence following electron transfer

Postcolumn derivatization reactions can enhance detector sensitivity and selectivity, but their successful combination with capillary liquid chromatography has been limited because of the small peak volumes in capillary chromatography. A capillary Taylor reactor (CTR), developed in our laboratory, provides simple and effective mixing and reaction in a 25-microm-radius postcolumn capillary. Homogenization of reactant streams occurs by radial diffusion, and a chemical reaction follows. Three characteristic times for a given reaction process can be predicted using simple physical and chemical parameters. Two of these times are the homogenization time, which governs how long it takes the molecules in the analyte and reagent streams to mix, and the reaction time, which governs how long the molecules in a homogeneous solution take to react. The third characteristic time is an adjustment to the reaction time called the start time, which represents an estimate of the average time the analyte stream spends without exposure to reagent. In this study, laser-induced fluorescence monitored the extent of the postcolumn reaction (reduction of Os(bpy)3(3+) by analyte to the photoluminescent Os(bpy)3(2+)) in a CTR. The reaction time depends on the reaction rates. Analysis of product versus time data yielded second-order reaction rate constants between the PFET reagent, tris(2,2'-bipyridine)osmium, and standards ((ferrocenylmethyl)trimethylammonium cation and p-hydroquinone) or catechols (dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid. The extent of the reactions in a CTR were then predicted from initial reaction conditions and compared to experimental results. Both the theory and experimental results suggested the reactions of catechols were generally kinetically controlled, while those of the standards were controlled by mixing time (1-2 s). Thus, the extent of homogenization can be monitored in a CTR using the relatively fast reaction of the reagent and p-hydroquinone. Kinetically controlled reactions of catechols, however, could be also completed in a reasonable time at increased reagent concentration. A satisfactory reactor, operating at 1.7 cm/s (2 microL/min) velocity with solutes having diffusion coefficients in the 5 x 10(-6) cm2/s range, can be constructed from 8.0 cm of 25-microm-radius capillary. Slower reactions require longer reaction times, but theoretical calculations expect that a CTR does not broaden a chromatographic peak (N = 14 000) from a 100-microm-capillary chromatography column by 10% if the pseudo-first-order rate constant is larger than 0.1 s(-1).

Techniques for neuropeptide determination

Because immunoassay responds to epitopes, and many molecules share the same peptide epitope, it is very difficult to obtain an accurate understanding of peptides, their creation and hydrolysis, in biological systems. Separate-and-detect approaches have merit in that the many active peptides and inactive fragments of a particular system can be separately determined. This review discusses the separation, by chromatography and capillary electrophoresis, and detection, by absorbance, fluorescence, electrochemistry, and immunoassay techniques. When separation pre-concentration is accompanied by laser-induced fluorescence or biuret-based electrochemical detection, nM-pM detection limits are obtained.