1
|
Zhang L, Han H, Zhou J, Wang R, Lv Y, Zong S, Ning X, Ji W. Imprinted covalent organic frameworks solid-phase microextraction fiber for in vivo monitoring of acidic per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in live aloe. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 918:170645. [PMID: 38320695 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) can lead to risks associated with animal and human health through the transfer along food chains. It is confirmed that PFASs can be transported to each part of plants after taken up by the roots. To better elucidate the underlying mechanisms for such exposure, it is highly valuable to develop analytical capabilities for in vivo monitoring of PFASs in live plants. In this work, a novel imprinted covalent organic frameworks (CMIP) solid-phase microextraction coupled with ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed with low limits of detection for six acidic PFASs (0.1-0.3 ng g-1) and used for in vivo monitoring in live aloe. The CMIP coating shows good precision (RSD of intra and inter ≤9.6 % and 10.2 %, respectively) and possesses much higher extraction efficiency than the commercial coatings. After cultivating aloe in soil spiked PFASs, the in vivo assays gave a wealth of information, including steady-state concentrations, translocation factors, elimination rate constants, and half-life of PFASs. The in vivo tracing method for live plants can provide much needed and unique information to evaluate the risk of PFASs, which are very important for the safety of agriculture production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lidan Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Haoyue Han
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Jing Zhou
- Shandong Lancheng Analysis and Testing Co., Ltd., Jinan 250100, China
| | - Rongyu Wang
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Yingchao Lv
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; Key Laboratory for Natural Active Pharmaceutical Constituents Research in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Shaojun Zong
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; Key Laboratory for Natural Active Pharmaceutical Constituents Research in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Xiaobei Ning
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; Key Laboratory for Natural Active Pharmaceutical Constituents Research in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China
| | - Wenhua Ji
- Key Laboratory for Applied Technology of Sophisticated Analytical Instruments of Shandong Province, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China; Key Laboratory for Natural Active Pharmaceutical Constituents Research in Universities of Shandong Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250014, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhang XW, Chu YJ, Li YH, Li XJ. Matrix compatibility of typical sol-gel solid-phase microextraction coatings in undiluted plasma and whole blood for the analysis of phthalic acid esters. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:2493-2503. [PMID: 35171297 PMCID: PMC8853384 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-03890-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Sol-gel materials have been widely used for solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coatings due to their outstanding performance; in contrast, sol-gel SPME coatings have seldom been used for in vivo sampling. The main reason is that their matrix compatibility is unclear. In order to promote the application of this type of coating and accelerate the development of in vivo SPME, in this study, the matrix compatibility of several typical sol-gel coatings was assessed in plasma and whole blood using phthalic acid esters as analytes. The service life of five kinds of sol-gel coatings was among 20-35 times in undiluted plasma, while it was 27 times for a homemade commercial polydimethylsiloxane coating, which indicates good matrix compatibility of sol-gel coatings in untreated plasma. The sol-gel hydroxy-terminated silicone oil/methacrylic acid fiber achieved the highest extraction ability among all of the fibers, and it was tested in pig whole blood. It could be continuously used for at least 22 times, demonstrating good potential for in vivo sampling. Subsequently, a direct-immersion SPME/gas chromatography-flame ionization detection method was established for the determination of 5 phthalic acid esters in blood. Compared with other methods reported in the literature, this method is rapid, simple, sensitive, and accurate, and does not need expensive instruments or tedious procedures. A simulation system of animal blood circulation was constructed to verify the practicability of sol-gel SPME coatings in animal vein sampling. The result illustrated the feasibility of that coating for in vivo blood sampling, but a more accurate quantification calibration approach needs to be explored.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Wei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), College of Food Science &Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Yao-Juan Chu
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), College of Food Science &Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Yu-Hao Li
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), College of Food Science &Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Xiu-Juan Li
- Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology (Ministry of Education), College of Food Science &Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wang Y, Jie Y, Hu Q, Yang Y, Ye Y, Zou S, Xu J, Ouyang G. A polymeric solid-phase microextraction fiber for the detection of pharmaceuticals in water samples. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1623:461171. [PMID: 32505277 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A novel disposable styrene based solid-phase microextraction (SPME) fiber was synthesized for the detection of lipid-lowering and antihypertensive drugs in real aquatic environment. Styrene and poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate were co-polymerized on quartz fibers by thermal polymerization in capillary molds. The polymeric fiber possessed a homogeneous, dense as well as porous surface, showing excellent chemical and mechanical stability. The performance of the fiber was evaluated through the extraction of seven pharmaceuticals by coupling SPME with high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry under the optimized extraction conditions. The extraction efficiency of the fiber was up to 278 times of PDMS fiber and the enrichment factors ranged from 55 to 1183. The limits of detection were in the range from 1.7 ng L-1 to 11.7 ng L-1, with good reproducibility. Moreover, the fiber was used in the real water samples of the Pearl River Delta. The recoveries of the target analytes from river water and sea water samples at different spiked concentrations were in the range from 84.1% to 133.4% and from 81.5% to 105.5%, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuwei Wang
- South China Sea Resource Exploitation and Protection Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, PR China
| | - Yuwang Jie
- South China Sea Resource Exploitation and Protection Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, PR China
| | - Qingkun Hu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China
| | - Ying Yang
- South China Sea Resource Exploitation and Protection Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, PR China.
| | - Yuxin Ye
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China
| | - Shichun Zou
- South China Sea Resource Exploitation and Protection Collaborative Innovation Center, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, PR China
| | - Jianqiao Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China.
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wu Q, Rubakhin SS, Sweedler JV. Quantitative Imprint Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Endogenous Ceramides in Rat Brain Tissue with Kinetic Calibration. Anal Chem 2020; 92:6613-6621. [PMID: 32255334 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c00392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is an effective technique for determining the spatial distribution of molecules in a variety of sample types; however, the quality of the ion signals is related to the chemical and morphological properties of the tissue and the targeted analyte(s). Issues may arise with the incorporation of standards into the tissue at repeatable, well-defined concentrations, as well as with the extraction and incorporation of endogenous analytes versus standards from tissue into the matrix. To address these concerns, we combine imprint MSI (iMSI) with kinetic calibration and use it to quantify lipids in rat brain tissue samples. Briefly, tissues were imprinted on slides coated with a dopamine-modified TiO2 monolith pretreated with analyte standards, resulting in the adsorption of endogenous analytes onto the coating and desorption of standards into the tissue. The incorporation of standards into the tissue enabled quantification of the measured analytes using kinetic calibration. Moreover, matrix effects were reduced, and the intensities of analyte standard signals became more uniform. The symmetry of the adsorption of endogenous ceramides and the desorption of ceramide standards suggest that the content of adsorbed endogenous ceramide can be determined by measuring the content of desorbed ceramide standard. Using kinetic calibration, endogenous ceramide concentrations were calculated for a range of dry and wet tissue imprinting conditions and compared to quantitative MSI using a standard spiking approach. We validated the relative quantitative values from iMSI using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and found that the ratios from iMSI as compared to LC-MS/MS were in the range of 70-200% over the concentration range of endogenous ceramides; the correlation coefficient between iMSI and LC-MS/MS was over 0.9 (Pearson's r), while the relative recoveries via traditional standard spiking were between 200% and 5000% depending on the brain region and sample preparation conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, People's Republic of China
| | - Stanislav S Rubakhin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jonathan V Sweedler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chen T, Xu H. In vivo investigation of pesticide residues in garlic using solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1090:72-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
6
|
Sharma MK, Dhakne P, Nn S, Reddy PA, Sengupta P. Paradigm Shift in the Arena of Sample Preparation and Bioanalytical Approaches Involving Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectroscopic Technique. ANAL SCI 2019; 35:1069-1082. [PMID: 31105088 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.19r003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Sample preparation is a highly important and integral part of bioanalysis for cleaning up the complex biological matrices and thereby minimizing matrix effect. Matrix effect can jeopardize the precise quantification and adversely affect the reliability of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based analytical results by alteration of analyte ionization. Matrix components result in suppression or enhancement of the intensity of analyte response. In spite of the high specificity and selectivity of tandem mass spectrometry, a relatively higher concentration of coeluted matrix elements present in biofluids may alter the efficiency of quantification of a bioanalytical method. Numerous literature reports different types of sample preparation techniques employed in bioanalysis. In this review, the strategies for selection of the appropriate sample clean-up technique in bioanalysis are discussed extensively. A paradigm shift in the arena of sample preparation and bioanalytical approaches involving the liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopic technique has been scrutinized. Current trends and possible future advancements in the field of biological sample extraction methods, including instrumental techniques are analyzed in detail.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manish Kumar Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad
| | - Pooja Dhakne
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad
| | - Sidhartha Nn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad
| | - P Ajitha Reddy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad
| | - Pinaki Sengupta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Ahmedabad
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Hassani SA, Lendor S, Boyaci E, Pawliszyn J, Womelsdorf T. Multineuromodulator measurements across fronto-striatal network areas of the behaving macaque using solid-phase microextraction. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:1649-1660. [PMID: 31433731 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00321.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Different neuromodulators rarely act independent from each other to modify neural processes but are instead coreleased, gated, or modulated. To understand this interdependence of neuromodulators and their collective influence on local circuits during different brain states, it is necessary to reliably extract local concentrations of multiple neuromodulators in vivo. Here we describe results using solid-phase microextraction (SPME), a method providing sensitive, multineuromodulator measurements. SPME is a sampling method that is coupled with mass spectrometry to quantify collected analytes. Reliable measurements of glutamate, dopamine, acetylcholine, and choline were made simultaneously within frontal cortex and striatum of two macaque monkeys (Macaca mulatta) during goal-directed behavior. We find glutamate concentrations several orders of magnitude higher than acetylcholine and dopamine in all brain regions. Dopamine was reliably detected in the striatum at tenfold higher concentrations than acetylcholine. Acetylcholine and choline concentrations were detected with high consistency across brain areas within monkeys and between monkeys. These findings illustrate that SPME microprobes provide a versatile novel tool to characterize multiple neuromodulators across different brain areas in vivo to understand the interdependence and covariation of neuromodulators during goal-directed behavior. Such data would be important to better distinguish between different behavioral states and characterize dysfunctional brain states that may be evident in psychiatric disorders.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our paper reports a reliable and sensitive novel method for measuring the absolute concentrations of glutamate, acetylcholine, choline, dopamine, and serotonin in brain circuits in vivo. We show that this method reliably samples multiple neurochemicals in three brain areas simultaneously while nonhuman primates are engaged in goal-directed behavior. We further describe how the methodology we describe here may be used by electrophysiologists as a low-barrier-to-entry tool for measuring multiple neurochemicals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seyed-Alireza Hassani
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Biology, Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sofia Lendor
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ezel Boyaci
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Thilo Womelsdorf
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Biology, Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Qiu J, Ouyang G, Pawliszyn J, Schlenk D, Gan J. A Novel Water-Swelling Sampling Probe for in Vivo Detection of Neonicotinoids in Plants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:9686-9694. [PMID: 31313572 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Ecotoxicological risks of neonicotinoid insecticides are raising significant concerns, including their potential role in bee population declines. Neonicotinoids are water-soluble, systemic insecticides, and exposure of nontarget organisms such as pollinators occurs mainly through residues in nectar and pollens of flowering plants. To better elucidate the underlying mechanisms for such nontarget exposure, it is highly valuable to develop analytical capabilities for in vivo monitoring of neonicotinoids in live plants. In this study, we developed a novel biomimetic water-swelling solid-phase microextraction (SPME) probe, with limits of detection for neonicotinoids as low as 0.03 ng mL-1, and applied it for in vivo detection of seven neonicotinoids in plant sap. The preparation of this fiber was simple and free of stringent or complex physical-chemical reactions. Equilibrium in neonicotinoid accumulation on the fiber was reached in <10 min, allowing for near instantaneous sampling. The water-swelling fiber displayed much greater sampling capacity than the commercially available polydimethylsiloxane and polyacrylate fibers, good reproducibility (RSD of inter- and intrafiber <8.9% and 7.8%, respectively), and antibiofouling property (no loss in performance after 20 use cycles). After treating lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) by foliar spray and soybean (Glycine max M.) by seed soaking, the in vivo assays provided a wealth of information, including changes in levels and distribution of neonicotinoids over time in the same plants. Kinetics and distribution patterns suggested that after treatment at the same level, neonicotinoids differed significantly in their levels in the sap. The in vivo sampling and monitoring of neonicotinoids in live plants may provide unique and much needed information in achieving breakthrough understanding of the connection between neonicotinoid use and pollinator exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junlang Qiu
- Department of Environmental Sciences , University of California , Riverside , California 92521 , United States
- School of Chemistry , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275 , China
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- School of Chemistry , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275 , China
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry , University of Waterloo , 200 University Avenue West , Waterloo , Ontario N2L3G1 , Canada
| | - Daniel Schlenk
- Department of Environmental Sciences , University of California , Riverside , California 92521 , United States
| | - Jay Gan
- Department of Environmental Sciences , University of California , Riverside , California 92521 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
In vivo analysis of two new fungicides in mung bean sprouts by solid phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Food Chem 2019; 275:688-695. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.09.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 09/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
10
|
Reyes-Garcés N, Alam MN, Pawliszyn J. The effect of hematocrit on solid-phase microextraction. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1001:40-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
11
|
Boyacı E, Bojko B, Reyes-Garcés N, Poole JJ, Gómez-Ríos GA, Teixeira A, Nicol B, Pawliszyn J. High-throughput analysis using non-depletive SPME: challenges and applications to the determination of free and total concentrations in small sample volumes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1167. [PMID: 29348436 PMCID: PMC5773572 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19313-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro high-throughput non-depletive quantitation of chemicals in biofluids is of growing interest in many areas. Some of the challenges facing researchers include the limited volume of biofluids, rapid and high-throughput sampling requirements, and the lack of reliable methods. Coupled to the above, growing interest in the monitoring of kinetics and dynamics of miniaturized biosystems has spurred the demand for development of novel and revolutionary methodologies for analysis of biofluids. The applicability of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is investigated as a potential technology to fulfill the aforementioned requirements. As analytes with sufficient diversity in their physicochemical features, nicotine, N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide, and diclofenac were selected as test compounds for the study. The objective was to develop methodologies that would allow repeated non-depletive sampling from 96-well plates, using 100 µL of sample. Initially, thin film-SPME was investigated. Results revealed substantial depletion and consequent disruption in the system. Therefore, new ultra-thin coated fibers were developed. The applicability of this device to the described sampling scenario was tested by determining the protein binding of the analytes. Results showed good agreement with rapid equilibrium dialysis. The presented method allows high-throughput analysis using small volumes, enabling fast reliable free and total concentration determinations without disruption of system equilibrium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ezel Boyacı
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
| | - Barbara Bojko
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.,Department of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, 85-067, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Nathaly Reyes-Garcés
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Justen J Poole
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Germán Augusto Gómez-Ríos
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Alexandre Teixeira
- Unilever U.K., Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook Bedford, MK441LQ, United Kingdom
| | - Beate Nicol
- Unilever U.K., Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook Bedford, MK441LQ, United Kingdom
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Xu J, Liu X, Wang Q, Huang S, Yin L, Xu J, Liu X, Jiang R, Zhu F, Ouyang G. Improving the Sensitivity of Solid-Phase Microextraction by Reducing the Volume of Off-Line Elution Solvent. Anal Chem 2018; 90:1572-1577. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b04777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ruifen Jiang
- School
of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Qiu J, Wang F, Zhang T, Chen L, Liu Y, Zhu F, Ouyang G. Novel Electrosorption-Enhanced Solid-Phase Microextraction Device for Ultrafast In Vivo Sampling of Ionized Pharmaceuticals in Fish. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:145-151. [PMID: 29199421 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Decreasing the tedious sample preparation duration is one of the most important concerns for the environmental analytical chemistry especially for in vivo experiments. However, due to the slow mass diffusion paths for most of the conventional methods, ultrafast in vivo sampling remains challenging. Herein, for the first time, we report an ultrafast in vivo solid-phase microextraction (SPME) device based on electrosorption enhancement and a novel custom-made CNT@PPY@pNE fiber for in vivo sampling of ionized acidic pharmaceuticals in fish. This sampling device exhibited an excellent robustness, reproducibility, matrix effect-resistant capacity, and quantitative ability. Importantly, the extraction kinetics of the targeted ionized pharmaceuticals were significantly accelerated using the device, which significantly improved the sensitivity of the SPME in vivo sampling method (limits of detection ranged from 0.12 ng·g-1 to 0.25 ng·g-1) and shorten the sampling time (only 1 min). The proposed approach was successfully applied to monitor the concentrations of ionized pharmaceuticals in living fish, which demonstrated that the device and fiber were suitable for ultrafast in vivo sampling and continuous monitoring. In addition, the bioconcentration factor (BCF) values of the pharmaceuticals were derived in tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) for the first time, based on the data of ultrafast in vivo sampling. Therefore, we developed and validated an effective and ultrafast SPME sampling device for in vivo sampling of ionized analytes in living organisms and this state-of-the-art method provides an alternative technique for future in vivo studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junlang Qiu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Fuxin Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Tianlang Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Le Chen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University , Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University , Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Fang Zhu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou 510275, China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Sinha M, Weyda I, Sørensen A, Bruno KS, Ahring BK. Alkane biosynthesis by Aspergillus carbonarius ITEM 5010 through heterologous expression of Synechococcus elongatus acyl-ACP/CoA reductase and aldehyde deformylating oxygenase genes. AMB Express 2017; 7:18. [PMID: 28058634 PMCID: PMC5216010 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-016-0321-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study we describe the heterologous expression of the recently identified cyanobacterial pathway for long chain alkane biosynthesis, involving the reduction of fatty acyl-ACP to fatty aldehyde and the subsequent conversion of this into alkanes, in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus carbonarius ITEM 5010. Genes originating from Synechococcus elongatus strain PCC7942, encoding acyl-ACP/CoA reductase and aldehyde deformylating oxygenase enzymes, were successfully expressed in A. carbonarius, which lead to the production of pentadecane and heptadecane, alkanes that have not been previously produced by this fungus. Titers of 0.2, 0.5 and 2.7 mg/l pentadecane and 0.8, 1.6 and 10.2 mg/l heptadecane were achieved using glucose, Yeast malt and oatmeal media, respectively. Besides producing alkanes, we found elevated levels of internal free fatty acids and triglycerides in the alkane producing transformant. These findings can indicate that a yet unidentified, native fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase channels back the fatty aldehydes into the fatty acid metabolism, thus competing for substrate with the heterologously expressed fatty aldehyde deformylating oxygenase. These findings will potentially facilitate the future application of robust, fungal cell factories for the production of advanced biofuels from various substrates.
Collapse
|
15
|
Ahmadi F, Sparham C, Pawliszyn J. A flow-through aqueous standard generation system for thin film microextraction investigations of UV filters and biocides partitioning to different environmental compartments. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2017; 230:663-673. [PMID: 28715771 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.06.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 06/25/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this paper problems associated with preparation of aqueous standard of highly hydrophobic compounds such as partial precipitation, being lost on the surfaces, low solubility in water and limited sample volume for accurate determination of their distribution coefficients are addressed. The following work presents two approaches that utilize blade thin film microextraction (TFME) to investigate partitioning of UV filters and biocides to humic acid (dissolved organic carbon) and sediment. A steady-state concentration of target analytes in water was generated using a flow-through aqueous standard generation (ASG) system. Dialysis membranes, a polytetrafluoroethylene permeation tube, and a frit porous (0.5 μm) coated by epoxy glue were basic elements used for preparation of the ASG system. In the currently presented study, negligible depletion TFME using hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) and octadecyl silica-based (C18) sorbents was employed towards the attainment of free concentration values of target analytes in the studied matrices. Thin film geometry provided a large volume of extraction phase, which improved the sensitivity of the method towards highly matrix-bound analytes. Extractions were performed in the equilibrium regime so as to prevent matrix effects and with aims to reach maximum method sensitivity for all analytes under study. Partitioning of analytes on dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was investigated in ASG to facilitate large sample volume conditions. Binding percentages and DOC distribution coefficients (Log KDOC) ranged from 20 to 98% and 3.71-6.72, respectively. Furthermore, sediment-water partition coefficients (Kd), organic-carbon normalized partition coefficients (Log KOC), and DOC distribution coefficients (Log KDOC) were investigated in slurry sediment, and ranged from 33 to 2860, 3.31-5.24 and 4.52-5.75 Lkg-1, respectively. The obtained results demonstrated that investigations utilizing ASG and TFME can yield reliable binding information for compounds with high log KOW values. This information is useful for study of fate, transport, and ecotoxicological effects of UV filters and biocides in aquatic environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fardin Ahmadi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Chris Sparham
- Unilever, Safety & Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedford, MK44 1LQ, UK
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
El-Beqqali A, Andersson LI, Jeppsson AD, Abdel-Rehim M. Molecularly imprinted polymer-sol-gel tablet toward micro-solid phase extraction: II. Determination of amphetamine in human urine samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1063:130-135. [PMID: 28863334 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Amphetamine selective molecularly imprinted sol-gel polymer tablets, MIP-tablets, for solid-phase microextraction of biofluid samples were prepared. An acetonitrile solution of deuterated amphetamine template and silane precursor, 3-(propylmethacrylate) trimethoxysilane, was soaked into the pores of polyethylene tablet substrates and polymerized by an acid-catalysed sol-gel process. Application of the resultant MIP-tablets to extract amphetamine from human urine samples followed by LC-MS/MS analysis was investigated. The extraction protocol was optimised with respect to pH of sample, addition of sodium chloride, extraction time, desorption solvent and desorption time. The final analysis method determined amphetamine in human urine with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.0ng/mL and a lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of 5ng/mL. Validation demonstrated accuracy of the method was 91.0-104.0% and inter-assay precision was 4.8-8.5% (RSD). Extraction recovery was 80%. The MIP-tablets could be re-used and the same tablet could be employed for more than twenty extractions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aziza El-Beqqali
- Department of Environmental Sci. & Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars I Andersson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Mohamed Abdel-Rehim
- Department of Environmental Sci. & Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Piri-Moghadam H, Alam MN, Pawliszyn J. Review of geometries and coating materials in solid phase microextraction: Opportunities, limitations, and future perspectives. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 984:42-65. [PMID: 28843569 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The development of new support and geometries of solid phase microextraction (SPME), including metal fiber assemblies, coated-tip, and thin film microextraction (TFME) (i.e. self-supported, fabric and blade supported), as well as their effects on diffusion and extraction rate of analytes were discussed in the current review. Application of main techniques widely used for preparation of a variety of coating materials of SPME, including sol-gel technique, electrochemical and electrospinning methods as well as the available commercial coatings, were presented. Advantages and limitations of each technique from several aspects, such as range of application, biocompatibility, availability in different geometrical configurations, method of preparation, incorporation of various materials to tune the coating properties, and thermal and physical stability, were also investigated. Future perspectives of each technique to improve the efficiency and stability of the coatings were also summarized. Some interesting materials including ionic liquids (ILs), metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and particle loaded coatings were briefly presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Piri-Moghadam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Md Nazmul Alam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Moein MM, El Beqqali A, Abdel-Rehim M. Bioanalytical method development and validation: Critical concepts and strategies. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1043:3-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 09/17/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
19
|
Goryński K, Goryńska P, Górska A, Harężlak T, Jaroch A, Jaroch K, Lendor S, Skobowiat C, Bojko B. SPME as a promising tool in translational medicine and drug discovery: From bench to bedside. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 130:55-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
20
|
Cao J, Xiong J, Wang L, Xu Y, Zhang Y. Transient Method for Determining Indoor Chemical Concentrations Based on SPME: Model Development and Calibration. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:9452-9459. [PMID: 27476381 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b01328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is regarded as a nonexhaustive sampling technique with a smaller extraction volume and a shorter extraction time than traditional sampling techniques and is hence widely used. The SPME sampling process is affected by the convection or diffusion effect along the coating surface, but this factor has seldom been studied. This paper derives an analytical model to characterize SPME sampling for semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) as well as for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by considering the surface mass transfer process. Using this model, the chemical concentrations in a sample matrix can be conveniently calculated. In addition, the model can be used to determine the characteristic parameters (partition coefficient and diffusion coefficient) for typical SPME chemical samplings (SPME calibration). Experiments using SPME samplings of two typical SVOCs, dibutyl phthalate (DBP) in sealed chamber and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in ventilated chamber, were performed to measure the two characteristic parameters. The experimental results demonstrated the effectiveness of the model and calibration method. Experimental data from the literature (VOCs sampled by SPME) were used to further validate the model. This study should prove useful for relatively rapid quantification of concentrations of different chemicals in various circumstances with SPME.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Cao
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jianyin Xiong
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081, China
| | - Lixin Wang
- School of Environment and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture , Beijing 100044, China
| | - Ying Xu
- Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas 78712-1094, United States
| | - Yinping Zhang
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing 100084, China
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Zhang M, Zhen Q, Wang H, Guo M, Zhou S, Wang X, Du X. Innovative fabrication of the flower-like nanocomposite coating on a nitinol fiber through Fenton’s oxidation for selective and sensitive solid-phase microextraction. Talanta 2016; 158:214-221. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.05.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
22
|
El-Beqqali A, Abdel-Rehim M. Molecularly imprinted polymer-sol-gel tablet toward micro-solid phase extraction: I. Determination of methadone in human plasma utilizing liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 936:116-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
23
|
Poole C, Mester Z, Miró M, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Pawliszyn J. Extraction for analytical scale sample preparation (IUPAC Technical Report). PURE APPL CHEM 2016. [DOI: 10.1515/pac-2015-0705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Approaches for sample preparation are developing rapidly as new strategies are implemented to improve sample throughput and to minimize material and solvent use in laboratory methods and to develop on-site capabilities. In majority of cases the key step in sample preparation is extraction, typically used to separate and enrich compounds of interests from the matrix in the extraction phase. In this contribution, the topic of analytical scale extraction is put in perspective emphasising the fundamental aspects of the underlying processes discussing the similarities and differences between different approaches. Classification of extraction techniques according to the mass transfer principles is provided.
Collapse
|
24
|
Szultka-Mlynska M, Olszowy P, Buszewski B. Nanoporous Conducting Polymer–Based Coatings in Microextraction Techniques for Environmental and Biomedical Applications. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2015; 46:236-47. [DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2015.1081051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Szultka-Mlynska
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
| | - Pawel Olszowy
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
| | - Bogusław Buszewski
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Modern Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Xu J, Huang S, Wu R, Jiang R, Zhu F, Wang J, Ouyang G. Bioinspired Polydopamine Sheathed Nanofibers for High-Efficient in Vivo Solid-Phase Microextraction of Pharmaceuticals in Fish Muscle. Anal Chem 2015; 87:3453-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac5048357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jianqiao Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic
Product Safety/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Shuyao Huang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic
Product Safety/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Rongben Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic
Product Safety/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Ruifen Jiang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic
Product Safety/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Fang Zhu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic
Product Safety/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Jing Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic
Product Safety/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Aquatic
Product Safety/KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Xu B, Chen M, Hou J, Chen X, Zhang X, Cui S. Calibration of pre-equilibrium HF-LPME and its application to the rapid determination of free analytes in biological fluids. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2015; 980:28-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
27
|
Sinha M, Sørensen A, Ahamed A, Ahring BK. Production of hydrocarbons by Aspergillus carbonarius ITEM 5010. Fungal Biol 2015; 119:274-82. [PMID: 25813514 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The filamentous fungus, Asperigillus carbonarius, is able to produce a series of hydrocarbons in liquid culture using lignocellulosic biomasses, such as corn stover and switch grass as carbon source. The hydrocarbons produced by the fungus show similarity to jet fuel composition and might have industrial application. The production of hydrocarbons was found to be dependent on type of media used. Therefore, ten different carbon sources (oat meal, wheat bran, glucose, carboxymethyl cellulose, avicel, xylan, corn stover, switch grass, pretreated corn stover, and pretreated switch grass) were tested to identify the maximum number and quantity of hydrocarbons produced. Several hydrocarbons were produced include undecane, dodecane, tetradecane, hexadecane 2,4-dimethylhexane, 4-methylheptane, 3-methyl-1-butanol, ethyl benzene, o-xylene. Oatmeal was found to be the carbon source resulting in the largest amounts of hydrocarbon products. The production of fungal hydrocarbons, especially from lignocellulosic biomasses, holds a great potential for future biofuel production whenever our knowledge on regulators and pathways increases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malavika Sinha
- Bioproducts, Sciences, and Engineering Laboratory, Washington State University, 2710 Crimson Way, Richland, WA 99354, USA
| | - Annette Sørensen
- Bioproducts, Sciences, and Engineering Laboratory, Washington State University, 2710 Crimson Way, Richland, WA 99354, USA; Section for Sustainable Biotechnology, Aalborg University Copenhagen, AC Meyers Vaenge 15, DK-2450 Copenhagen SV, Denmark
| | - Aftab Ahamed
- Bioproducts, Sciences, and Engineering Laboratory, Washington State University, 2710 Crimson Way, Richland, WA 99354, USA
| | - Birgitte Kiær Ahring
- Bioproducts, Sciences, and Engineering Laboratory, Washington State University, 2710 Crimson Way, Richland, WA 99354, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Boyacı E, Rodríguez-Lafuente Á, Gorynski K, Mirnaghi F, Souza-Silva ÉA, Hein D, Pawliszyn J. Sample preparation with solid phase microextraction and exhaustive extraction approaches: Comparison for challenging cases. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 873:14-30. [PMID: 25911426 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.12.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Revised: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In chemical analysis, sample preparation is frequently considered the bottleneck of the entire analytical method. The success of the final method strongly depends on understanding the entire process of analysis of a particular type of analyte in a sample, namely: the physicochemical properties of the analytes (solubility, volatility, polarity etc.), the environmental conditions, and the matrix components of the sample. Various sample preparation strategies have been developed based on exhaustive or non-exhaustive extraction of analytes from matrices. Undoubtedly, amongst all sample preparation approaches, liquid extraction, including liquid-liquid (LLE) and solid phase extraction (SPE), are the most well-known, widely used, and commonly accepted methods by many international organizations and accredited laboratories. Both methods are well documented and there are many well defined procedures, which make them, at first sight, the methods of choice. However, many challenging tasks, such as complex matrix applications, on-site and in vivo applications, and determination of matrix-bound and free concentrations of analytes, are not easily attainable with these classical approaches for sample preparation. In the last two decades, the introduction of solid phase microextraction (SPME) has brought significant progress in the sample preparation area by facilitating on-site and in vivo applications, time weighted average (TWA) and instantaneous concentration determinations. Recently introduced matrix compatible coatings for SPME facilitate direct extraction from complex matrices and fill the gap in direct sampling from challenging matrices. Following introduction of SPME, numerous other microextraction approaches evolved to address limitations of the above mentioned techniques. There is not a single method that can be considered as a universal solution for sample preparation. This review aims to show the main advantages and limitations of the above mentioned sample preparation approaches and the applicability and capability of each technique for challenging cases such as complex matrices, on-site applications and automation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ezel Boyacı
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Ángel Rodríguez-Lafuente
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Krzysztof Gorynski
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Department of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Pharmacology, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Jurasza 2, 85-089 Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Fatemeh Mirnaghi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Emergency Science and Technology Section, Environment Canada, 335 River Road, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Érica A Souza-Silva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Dietmar Hein
- Professional Analytical System (PAS) Technology, Magdala, Germany
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Boyacı E, Pawliszyn J. Micelle Assisted Thin-Film Solid Phase Microextraction: A New Approach for Determination of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds in Environmental Samples. Anal Chem 2014; 86:8916-21. [PMID: 25148600 DOI: 10.1021/ac5015673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ezel Boyacı
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L
3G1, Canada
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario N2L
3G1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Analysis of Local Anesthetics in Biological Samples via Kinetically Calibrated Liquid-Phase Solvent Bar Micro-Extraction Combined with HPLC. Chromatographia 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-014-2713-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
31
|
Polyaniline sheathed electrospun nanofiber bar for in vivo extraction of trace acidic phytohormones in plant tissue. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1342:16-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
32
|
Gholivand MB, Shamsipur M, Shamizadeh M, Moradian R, Astinchap B. Cobalt oxide nanoparticles as a novel high-efficiency fiber coating for solid phase microextraction of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene from aqueous solutions. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 822:30-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
33
|
Moein MM, Said R, Bassyouni F, Abdel-Rehim M. Solid phase microextraction and related techniques for drugs in biological samples. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2014; 2014:921350. [PMID: 24688797 PMCID: PMC3943203 DOI: 10.1155/2014/921350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In drug discovery and development, the quantification of drugs in biological samples is an important task for the determination of the physiological performance of the investigated drugs. After sampling, the next step in the analytical process is sample preparation. Because of the low concentration levels of drug in plasma and the variety of the metabolites, the selected extraction technique should be virtually exhaustive. Recent developments of sample handling techniques are directed, from one side, toward automatization and online coupling of sample preparation units. The primary objective of this review is to present the recent developments in microextraction sample preparation methods for analysis of drugs in biological fluids. Microextraction techniques allow for less consumption of solvent, reagents, and packing materials, and small sample volumes can be used. In this review the use of solid phase microextraction (SPME), microextraction in packed sorbent (MEPS), and stir-bar sorbtive extraction (SBSE) in drug analysis will be discussed. In addition, the use of new sorbents such as monoliths and molecularly imprinted polymers will be presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Mahdi Moein
- Department of Chemistry, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rana Said
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Mohamed Abdel-Rehim
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE10691 Stockholm, Sweden
- National Research Center of Egypt, Cairo 12622, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Zali S, Jalali F, Es-haghi A, Shamsipur M. Determination of free formaldehyde in vaccines and biological samples using solid-phase microextraction coupled to GC-MS. J Sep Sci 2013; 36:3883-8. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201300771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Zali
- Department of Chemistry; Razi University; Kermanshah Iran
| | - Fahimeh Jalali
- Department of Chemistry; Razi University; Kermanshah Iran
| | - Ali Es-haghi
- Department of Physico Chemistry; Razi Vaccine & Serum Research Institute; Karaj Iran
| | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Wu Q, Wu D, Guan Y. In Vivo Fast Equilibrium Microextraction by Stable and Biocompatible Nanofiber Membrane Sandwiched in Microfluidic Device. Anal Chem 2013; 85:11524-31. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4028438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wu
- Key Laboratory
of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of
Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian 116023, P. R. China
- Dalian Institute
of Chemical Physics, Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, P. R. China
| | - Dapeng Wu
- Key Laboratory
of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of
Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian 116023, P. R. China
| | - Yafeng Guan
- Key Laboratory
of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of
Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian 116023, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Mirnaghi FS, Goryński K, Rodriguez-Lafuente A, Boyacı E, Bojko B, Pawliszyn J. Microextraction versus exhaustive extraction approaches for simultaneous analysis of compounds in wide range of polarity. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1316:37-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.09.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
37
|
Wu Q, Wu D, Guan Y. Fast Equilibrium Micro-Extraction from Biological Fluids with Biocompatible Core–Sheath Electrospun Nanofibers. Anal Chem 2013; 85:5924-32. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4006974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wu
- Department of Instrumentation
and Analytical Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Separation Science for
Analytical Chemistry of CAS, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian
116023, P. R. China
- Dalian
Institute of Chemical
Physics, Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, P. R. China
| | - Dapeng Wu
- Department of Instrumentation
and Analytical Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Separation Science for
Analytical Chemistry of CAS, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian
116023, P. R. China
| | - Yafeng Guan
- Department of Instrumentation
and Analytical Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Separation Science for
Analytical Chemistry of CAS, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian
116023, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
|
39
|
Abstract
Conventional in vitro or ex vivo bioanalytical quantitative sample preparation methods for the determination of compounds in biological tissues are often coupled with challenges in obtaining an assay representative of the system of interest. The rising interest in in vivo microsampling bioanalytical methods is due to the unique advantages they offer over their in vitro counterparts. In vivo solid-phase microextraction (SPME), a diffusion-based microsampling tool, has been successfully applied in recent studies to various biological systems. This review presents recent trends in tissue bioanalysis using in vivo SPME as a sample preparation tool. Efforts were made to discuss the various bioapplications of the method while highlighting possible strategies for improved sensitivity where needed. In vivo SPME devices currently employed for the various applications have also been described. In addition, we highlight selectivity of a new class of biocompatible coatings that can potentially improve the coverage of metabolites for untargeted metabolomics.
Collapse
|
40
|
Cui S, Ouyang G, Duan G, Hou J, Luan T, Zhang X. The mass transfer dynamics of hollow fiber liquid-phase microextraction and its application for rapid analysis of biological samples. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1266:10-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
41
|
Abstract
Sample preparation has historically been, and continues to be, the most challenging part of the bioanalytical workflow. Several techniques have been developed over the years to deal with the problems of recovery and matrix effects in an effort to increase the reliability and robustness of the bioanalytical method. In recent years certain techniques have come into prominence and gained acceptance in routine sample preparation, and some have shown promise in their use in a discovery environment where speed is critical and method development time is often limited. The aim of this review is to examine several of these techniques and provide examples of their use from the literature, as well as comment on their utility in current workflows.
Collapse
|
42
|
Study of kinetic desorption rate constant in fish muscle and agarose gel model using solid phase microextraction coupled with liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 742:2-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2011] [Revised: 12/14/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
43
|
Yeung JCY, de Lannoy I, Gien B, Vuckovic D, Yang Y, Bojko B, Pawliszyn J. Semi-automated in vivo solid-phase microextraction sampling and the diffusion-based interface calibration model to determine the pharmacokinetics of methoxyfenoterol and fenoterol in rats. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 742:37-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2011] [Revised: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
44
|
Solid phase microextraction and LC–MS/MS for the determination of paliperidone after stereoselective fungal biotransformation of risperidone. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 742:80-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
45
|
Zhang X, Oakes KD, Hoque ME, Luong D, Taheri-Nia S, Lee C, Smith BM, Metcalfe CD, de Solla S, Servos MR. Depth-Profiling of Environmental Pharmaceuticals in Biological Tissue by Solid-Phase Microextraction. Anal Chem 2012; 84:6956-62. [DOI: 10.1021/ac3004659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhang
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Ken D. Oakes
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Md Ehsanul Hoque
- Water Quality Centre, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 7B8, Canada
| | - Di Luong
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Shirin Taheri-Nia
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Claudia Lee
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Brendan M. Smith
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Chris D. Metcalfe
- Water Quality Centre, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 7B8, Canada
| | - Shane de Solla
- Wildlife and Landscape Science
Directorate, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore
Road, Burlington, Ontario, L7R 4A6
| | - Mark R. Servos
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Comparison of solid phase microextraction versus spectroscopic techniques for binding studies of carbamazepine. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 66:91-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Revised: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
47
|
Zhang X, Oakes KD, Wang S, Servos MR, Cui S, Pawliszyn J, Metcalfe CD. In vivo sampling of environmental organic contaminants in fish by solid-phase microextraction. Trends Analyt Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2011.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
48
|
|
49
|
Abstract
The importance of sample preparation methods as the first stage in bioanalysis is described. In this article, the sample preparation concept and strategies will be discussed, along with the requirements for good sample preparation. The most widely used sample preparation methods in the pharmaceutical industry are presented; for example, the need for same-day rotation of results from large numbers of biological samples in pharmaceutical industry makes high throughput bioanalysis more essential. In this article, high-throughput sample preparation techniques are presented; examples are given of the extraction and concentration of analytes from biological matrices, including protein precipitation, solid-phase extraction, liquid–liquid extraction and microextraction-related techniques. Finally, the potential role of selective extraction methods, including molecular imprinted phases, is considered.
Collapse
|
50
|
Opportunities to minimise animal use in pharmaceutical regulatory general toxicology: a cross-company review. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2011; 61:222-9. [PMID: 21855593 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Revised: 07/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Toxicity studies in animals are carried out to identify the intrinsic hazard of a substance to support risk assessment for humans. In order to identify opportunities to minimise animal use in regulatory toxicology studies, a review of current study designs was carried out. Pharmaceutical companies and contract research organisations in the UK shared data and experience of standard toxicology studies (ranging from one to nine months duration) in rodents and non-rodents; and carcinogenicity studies in the rat and mouse. The data show that variation in study designs was primarily due to (i) the number of animals used in the main study groups, (ii) the use of animals in toxicokinetic (TK) satellite groups, and (iii) the use of animals in off-treatment recovery groups. The information has been used to propose a series of experimental designs where small adjustments could reduce animal use in practice, while maintaining the scientific objectives.
Collapse
|