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Bourguignon N, Karp P, Attallah C, Chamorro DA, Oggero M, Booth R, Ferrero S, Bhansali S, Pérez MS, Lerner B, Helguera G. Large Area Microfluidic Bioreactor for Production of Recombinant Protein. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12070526. [PMID: 35884329 PMCID: PMC9313365 DOI: 10.3390/bios12070526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To produce innovative biopharmaceuticals, highly flexible, adaptable, robust, and affordable bioprocess platforms for bioreactors are essential. In this article, we describe the development of a large-area microfluidic bioreactor (LM bioreactor) for mammalian cell culture that works at laminar flow and perfusion conditions. The 184 cm2 32 cisterns LM bioreactor is the largest polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic device fabricated by photopolymer flexographic master mold methodology, reaching a final volume of 2.8 mL. The LM bioreactor was connected to a syringe pump system for culture media perfusion, and the cells’ culture was monitored by photomicrograph imaging. CHO-ahIFN-α2b adherent cell line expressing the anti-hIFN-a2b recombinant scFv-Fc monoclonal antibody (mAb) for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus were cultured on the LM bioreactor. Cell culture and mAb production in the LM bioreactor could be sustained for 18 days. Moreover, the anti-hIFN-a2b produced in the LM bioreactor showed higher affinity and neutralizing antiproliferative activity compared to those mAbs produced in the control condition. We demonstrate for the first-time, a large area microfluidic bioreactor for mammalian cell culture that enables a controlled microenvironment suitable for the development of high-quality biologics with potential for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Bourguignon
- Centro IREN, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Haedo B1706EAH, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina; (N.B.); (D.A.C.); (M.S.P.)
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA;
| | - Paola Karp
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires C1428ADN, Argentina; (P.K.); (S.F.)
| | - Carolina Attallah
- Centro Biotecnológico del Litoral, Laboratorio de Cultivos Celulares, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral (UNL), CONICET, Santa Fe S3000ZAA, Provincia de Santa Fe, Argentina; (C.A.); (M.O.)
| | - Daniel A. Chamorro
- Centro IREN, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Haedo B1706EAH, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina; (N.B.); (D.A.C.); (M.S.P.)
| | - Marcos Oggero
- Centro Biotecnológico del Litoral, Laboratorio de Cultivos Celulares, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral (UNL), CONICET, Santa Fe S3000ZAA, Provincia de Santa Fe, Argentina; (C.A.); (M.O.)
| | - Ross Booth
- Roche Sequencing Solutions, Inc., Pleasanton, CA 94588, USA;
| | - Sol Ferrero
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires C1428ADN, Argentina; (P.K.); (S.F.)
| | - Shekhar Bhansali
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA;
| | - Maximiliano S. Pérez
- Centro IREN, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Haedo B1706EAH, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina; (N.B.); (D.A.C.); (M.S.P.)
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA;
| | - Betiana Lerner
- Centro IREN, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Haedo B1706EAH, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina; (N.B.); (D.A.C.); (M.S.P.)
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33174, USA;
- Correspondence: (B.L.); (G.H.); Tel.:+5411-4343-1177 (ext. 1209) (B.L.); +54-11-4783-2869 (G.H.)
| | - Gustavo Helguera
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME-CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires C1428ADN, Argentina; (P.K.); (S.F.)
- Correspondence: (B.L.); (G.H.); Tel.:+5411-4343-1177 (ext. 1209) (B.L.); +54-11-4783-2869 (G.H.)
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Abstract
Cell manipulation in droplets has emerged as one of the great successes of microfluidic technologies, with the development of single-cell screening. However, the droplet format has also served to go beyond single-cell studies, namely by considering the interactions between different cells or between cells and their physical or chemical environment. These studies pose specific challenges linked to the need for long-term culture of adherent cells or the diverse types of measurements associated with complex biological phenomena. Here we review the emergence of droplet microfluidic methods for culturing cells and studying their interactions. We begin by characterizing the quantitative aspects that determine the ability to encapsulate cells, transport molecules, and provide sufficient nutrients within the droplets. This is followed by an evaluation of the biological constraints such as the control of the biochemical environment and promoting the anchorage of adherent cells. This first part ends with a description of measurement methods that have been developed. The second part of the manuscript focuses on applications of these technologies for cancer studies, immunology, and stem cells while paying special attention to the biological relevance of the cellular assays and providing guidelines on improving this relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Sart
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France.,Physical Microfluidics and Bioengineering, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Gustave Ronteix
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France.,Physical Microfluidics and Bioengineering, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Shreyansh Jain
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France.,Physical Microfluidics and Bioengineering, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Gabriel Amselem
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France.,Physical Microfluidics and Bioengineering, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Charles N Baroud
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France.,Physical Microfluidics and Bioengineering, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France
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3
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Fan WTL. Stochastic PDEs on graphs as scaling limits of discrete interacting systems. BERNOULLI 2021. [DOI: 10.3150/20-bej1296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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4
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Berry SB, Gower MS, Su X, Seshadri C, Theberge AB. A Modular Microscale Granuloma Model for Immune-Microenvironment Signaling Studies in vitro. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:931. [PMID: 32974300 PMCID: PMC7461927 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the most potent infectious diseases in the world, causing more deaths than any other single infectious agent. TB infection is caused by inhalation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and subsequent phagocytosis and migration into the lung tissue by innate immune cells (e.g., alveolar macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells), resulting in the formation of a fused mass of immune cells known as the granuloma. Considered the pathological hallmark of TB, the granuloma is a complex microenvironment that is crucial for pathogen containment as well as pathogen survival. Disruption of the delicate granuloma microenvironment via numerous stimuli, such as variations in cytokine secretions, nutrient availability, and the makeup of immune cell population, can lead to an active infection. Herein, we present a novel in vitro model to examine the soluble factor signaling between a mycobacterial infection and its surrounding environment. Adapting a newly developed suspended microfluidic platform, known as Stacks, we established a modular microscale infection model containing human immune cells and a model mycobacterial strain that can easily integrate with different microenvironmental cues through simple spatial and temporal "stacking" of each module of the platform. We validate the establishment of suspended microscale (4 μL) infection cultures that secrete increased levels of proinflammatory factors IL-6, VEGF, and TNFα upon infection and form 3D aggregates (granuloma model) encapsulating the mycobacteria. As a proof of concept to demonstrate the capability of our platform to examine soluble factor signaling, we cocultured an in vitro angiogenesis model with the granuloma model and quantified morphology changes in endothelial structures as a result of culture conditions (P < 0.05 when comparing infected vs. uninfected coculture systems). We envision our modular in vitro granuloma model can be further expanded and adapted for studies focusing on the complex interplay between granulomatous structures and their surrounding microenvironment, as well as a complementary tool to augment in vivo signaling and mechanistic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel B. Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Maia S. Gower
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Xiaojing Su
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Chetan Seshadri
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Ashleigh B. Theberge
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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5
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Damle VG, Sharmin R, Morita A, Nie L, Schirhagl R. Micro Versus Macro - The Effect of Environmental Confinement on Cellular Nanoparticle Uptake. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:869. [PMID: 32793585 PMCID: PMC7393206 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
While the microenvironment is known to alter the cellular behavior in terms of metabolism, growth and the degree of endoplasmic reticulum stress, its influence on the nanoparticle uptake is not yet investigated. Specifically, it is not clear if the cells cultured in a microenvironment ingest different amounts of nanoparticles than cells cultured in a macroenvironment (for example a petri dish). To answer this question, here we used J774 murine macrophages and fluorescent nanodiamonds (FND) as a model system to systematically compare the uptake efficiency of cells cultured in a petri dish and in a microfluidic channel. Specifically, equal numbers of cells were cultured in two devices followed by the FND incubation. Then cells were fixed, stained and imaged to quantify the FND uptake. We show that the FND uptake in the cells cultured in petri dishes is significantly higher than the uptake in a microfluidic chip where the alteration in CO2 environment, the cell culture medium pH and the surface area to volume ratio seem to be the underlying causes leading to this observed difference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viraj G. Damle
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Rokshana Sharmin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Aryan Morita
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
- Department of Dental Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Dentistry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Linyan Nie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Romana Schirhagl
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Day JH, Nicholson TM, Su X, van Neel TL, Clinton I, Kothandapani A, Lee J, Greenberg MH, Amory JK, Walsh TJ, Muller CH, Franco OE, Jefcoate CR, Crawford SE, Jorgensen JS, Theberge AB. Injection molded open microfluidic well plate inserts for user-friendly coculture and microscopy. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:107-119. [PMID: 31712791 PMCID: PMC6917835 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00706g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Open microfluidic cell culture systems are powerful tools for interrogating biological mechanisms. We have previously presented a microscale cell culture system, based on spontaneous capillary flow of biocompatible hydrogels, that is integrated into a standard cell culture well plate, with flexible cell compartment geometries and easy pipet access. Here, we present two new injection molded open microfluidic devices that also easily insert into standard cell culture well plates and standard culture workflows, allowing seamless adoption by biomedical researchers. These platforms allow culture and study of soluble factor communication among multiple cell types, and the microscale dimensions are well-suited for rare primary cells. Unique advances include optimized evaporation control within the well, manufacture with reproducible and cost-effective rapid injection molding, and compatibility with sample preparation workflows for high resolution microscopy (following well-established coverslip mounting procedures). In this work, we present several use cases that highlight the usability and widespread utility of our platform including culture of limited primary testis cells from surgical patients, microscopy readouts including immunocytochemistry and single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH), and coculture to study interactions between adipocytes and prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H Day
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Tristan M Nicholson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. and Department of Urology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Xiaojing Su
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Tammi L van Neel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Ivor Clinton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
| | - Anbarasi Kothandapani
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jinwoo Lee
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA and Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Max H Greenberg
- Department of Surgery, NorthShore University Research Institute, Affiliate of University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | - John K Amory
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Thomas J Walsh
- Department of Urology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Charles H Muller
- Department of Urology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA and Male Fertility Laboratory, Department of Urology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Omar E Franco
- Department of Surgery, NorthShore University Research Institute, Affiliate of University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | - Colin R Jefcoate
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Susan E Crawford
- Department of Surgery, NorthShore University Research Institute, Affiliate of University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | - Joan S Jorgensen
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Ashleigh B Theberge
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, WA 98195, USA. and Department of Urology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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7
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Cheng JW, Sip CG, Lindstedt PR, Boitano R, Bluestein BM, Gamble LJ, Folch A. “Chip-on-a-Transwell” Devices for User-Friendly Control of the Microenvironment of Cultured Cells. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2019; 2:4998-5011. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.9b00672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W. Cheng
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, Washington 98195-5061, United States
| | - Christopher G. Sip
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, Washington 98195-5061, United States
| | - Philip R. Lindstedt
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, Washington 98195-5061, United States
| | - Ross Boitano
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, Washington 98195-5061, United States
| | - Blake M. Bluestein
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, Washington 98195-5061, United States
| | - Lara J. Gamble
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, Washington 98195-5061, United States
| | - Albert Folch
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Box 355061, Seattle, Washington 98195-5061, United States
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8
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SATO K, SATO M, YOKOYAMA M, HIRAI M, FURUTA A. Influence of Culture Conditions on Cell Proliferation in a Microfluidic Channel. ANAL SCI 2019; 35:49-56. [DOI: 10.2116/analsci.18sdp04] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kae SATO
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
| | - Miwa SATO
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
| | - Mizuho YOKOYAMA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
| | - Mai HIRAI
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
| | - Aya FURUTA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
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Abstract
Microfluidics has played a vital role in developing novel methods to investigate biological phenomena at the molecular and cellular level during the last two decades. Microscale engineering of cellular systems is nevertheless a nascent field marked inherently by frequent disruptive advancements in technology such as PDMS-based soft lithography. Viable culture and manipulation of cells in microfluidic devices requires knowledge across multiple disciplines including molecular and cellular biology, chemistry, physics, and engineering. There has been numerous excellent reviews in the past 15 years on applications of microfluidics for molecular and cellular biology including microfluidic cell culture (Berthier et al., 2012; El-Ali, Sorger, & Jensen, 2006; Halldorsson et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2007; Mehling & Tay, 2014; Sackmann et al., 2014; Whitesides, 2006; Young & Beebe, 2010), cell culture models (Gupta et al., 2016; Inamdar & Borenstein, 2011; Meyvantsson & Beebe, 2008), cell secretion (Schrell et al., 2016), chemotaxis (Kim & Wu, 2012; Wu et al., 2013), neuron culture (Millet & Gillette, 2012a, 2012b), drug screening (Dittrich & Manz, 2006; Eribol, Uguz, & Ulgen, 2016; Wu, Huang, & Lee, 2010), cell sorting (Autebert et al., 2012; Bhagat et al., 2010; Gossett et al., 2010; Wyatt Shields Iv, Reyes, & López, 2015), single cell studies (Lecault et al., 2012; Reece et al., 2016; Yin & Marshall, 2012), stem cell biology (Burdick & Vunjak-Novakovic, 2009; Wu et al., 2011; Zhang & Austin, 2012), cell differentiation (Zhang et al., 2017a), systems biology (Breslauer, Lee, & Lee, 2006), 3D cell culture (Huh et al., 2011; Li et al., 2012; van Duinen et al., 2015), spheroids and organoids (Lee et al., 2016; Montanez-Sauri, Beebe, & Sung, 2015; Morimoto & Takeuchi, 2013; Skardal et al., 2016; Young, 2013), organ-on-chip (Bhatia & Ingber, 2014; Esch, Bahinski, & Huh, 2015; Huh et al., 2011; van der Meer & van den Berg, 2012), and tissue engineering (Andersson & Van Den Berg, 2004; Choi et al., 2007; Hasan et al., 2014). In this chapter, we provide an overview of PDMS-based microdevices for microfluidic cell culture. We discuss the advantages and challenges of using PDMS-based soft lithography for microfluidic cell culture and highlight recent progress and future directions in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melikhan Tanyeri
- Biomedical Engineering Program, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Savaş Tay
- Institute of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States; Institute of Genomics and Systems Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.
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10
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Kim JA, Choi HJ, Kim CM, Jin HK, Bae JS, Kim GM. Enhancement of Virus Infection Using Dynamic Cell Culture in a Microchannel. MICROMACHINES 2018; 9:mi9100482. [PMID: 30424415 PMCID: PMC6215236 DOI: 10.3390/mi9100482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
With increasing interest in induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in the field of stem cell research, highly efficient infection of somatic cells with virus factors is gaining importance. This paper presents a method of employing microfluidic devices for dynamic cell culture and virus infection in a microchannel. The closed space in the microchannel provided a better environment for viruses to diffuse and contact cell surfaces to infect cells. The microfluidic devices were fabricated by photolithography and soft lithography. NIH/3T3 fibroblast cells were cultured in the microfluidic device in static and dynamic conditions and compared with the conventional culture method of using Petri dishes. Virus infection was evaluated using an enhanced green fluorescent protein virus as a model. Dynamic culture in the microchannel showed similar growth of cells to that in Petri dish culture, but the virus infection efficiency was four-times higher. The proposed dynamic culture system could be useful in iPSC research by providing efficient virus infection tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong A Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu 41566, Korea.
- Osong Medical Innovation Foundation, 123 Osongsaengmyung-ro, Osong-eub, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk 28160, Korea.
| | - Hye Jin Choi
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu 41566, Korea.
| | - Chul Min Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu 41566, Korea.
- Institute of Tissue Regeneration Engineering (ITREN), Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea.
| | - Hee Kyung Jin
- Department of Laboratory Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu 41566, Korea.
| | - Jae-Sung Bae
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, 680 Gukchaebosang-ro, Jung-Gu, Daegu 41944, Korea.
| | - Gyu Man Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Buk-gu, Daegu 41566, Korea.
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11
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Georg M, Fernández-Cabada T, Bourguignon N, Karp P, Peñaherrera AB, Helguera G, Lerner B, Pérez MS, Mertelsmann R. Development of image analysis software for quantification of viable cells in microchips. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193605. [PMID: 29494694 PMCID: PMC5832319 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past few years, image analysis has emerged as a powerful tool for analyzing various cell biology parameters in an unprecedented and highly specific manner. The amount of data that is generated requires automated methods for the processing and analysis of all the resulting information. The software available so far are suitable for the processing of fluorescence and phase contrast images, but often do not provide good results from transmission light microscopy images, due to the intrinsic variation of the acquisition of images technique itself (adjustment of brightness / contrast, for instance) and the variability between image acquisition introduced by operators / equipment. In this contribution, it has been presented an image processing software, Python based image analysis for cell growth (PIACG), that is able to calculate the total area of the well occupied by cells with fusiform and rounded morphology in response to different concentrations of fetal bovine serum in microfluidic chips, from microscopy images in transmission light, in a highly efficient way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Georg
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University of Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Tamara Fernández-Cabada
- National Technological University (UTN), Regional Faculty from Haedo, Paris, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Faculty of Engineering - Institute of Biomedical Engineering - University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires C1063ACV, Argentina
| | - Natalia Bourguignon
- National Technological University (UTN), Regional Faculty from Haedo, Paris, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Faculty of Engineering - Institute of Biomedical Engineering - University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires C1063ACV, Argentina
| | - Paola Karp
- Biology and Experimental Medicine Institute (IBYME CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428ADN, Argentina
| | - Ana B. Peñaherrera
- National Technological University (UTN), Regional Faculty from Haedo, Paris, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Faculty of Engineering - Institute of Biomedical Engineering - University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires C1063ACV, Argentina
| | - Gustavo Helguera
- Biology and Experimental Medicine Institute (IBYME CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428ADN, Argentina
| | - Betiana Lerner
- National Technological University (UTN), Regional Faculty from Haedo, Paris, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Faculty of Engineering - Institute of Biomedical Engineering - University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires C1063ACV, Argentina
| | - Maximiliano S. Pérez
- National Technological University (UTN), Regional Faculty from Haedo, Paris, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Faculty of Engineering - Institute of Biomedical Engineering - University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires C1063ACV, Argentina
- * E-mail: (RM); (MSP)
| | - Roland Mertelsmann
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University of Freiburg Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (RM); (MSP)
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12
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Cheng JW, Chang TC, Bhattacharjee N, Folch A. An open-chamber flow-focusing device for focal stimulation of micropatterned cells. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2016; 10:024122. [PMID: 27158290 PMCID: PMC4833748 DOI: 10.1063/1.4946801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic devices can deliver soluble factors to cell and tissue culture microenvironments with precise spatiotemporal control. However, enclosed microfluidic environments often have drawbacks such as the need for continuous culture medium perfusion which limits the duration of experiments, incongruity between microculture and macroculture, difficulty in introducing cells and tissues, and high shear stress on cells. Here, we present an open-chamber microfluidic device that delivers hydrodynamically focused streams of soluble reagents to cells over long time periods (i.e., several hours). We demonstrate the advantage of the open chamber by using conventional cell culture techniques to induce the differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes, a process that occurs in 7-10 days and is difficult to achieve in closed chamber microfluidic devices. By controlling the flow rates and altering the device geometry, we produced sharp focal streams with widths ranging from 36 μm to 187 μm. The focal streams were reproducible (∼12% variation between units) and stable (∼20% increase in stream width over 10 h of operation). Furthermore, we integrated trenches for micropatterning myoblasts and microtraps for confining single primary myofibers into the device. We demonstrate with finite element method (FEM) simulations that shear stresses within the cell trench are well below values known to be deleterious to cells, while local concentrations are maintained at ∼22% of the input concentration. Finally, we demonstrated focused delivery of cytoplasmic and nuclear dyes to micropatterned myoblasts and myofibers. The open-chamber microfluidic flow-focusing concept combined with micropatterning may be generalized to other microfluidic applications that require stringent long-term cell culture conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Cheng
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Tim C Chang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Nirveek Bhattacharjee
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Albert Folch
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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Kurth F, Franco-Obregón A, Bärtschi CA, Dittrich PS. An adaptable stage perfusion incubator for the controlled cultivation of C2C12 myoblasts. Analyst 2015; 140:127-33. [PMID: 25368875 DOI: 10.1039/c4an01758g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Here we present a stage perfusion incubation system that allows for the cultivation of mammalian cells within PDMS microfluidic devices for long-term microscopic examination and analysis. The custom-built stage perfusion incubator is adaptable to any x-y microscope stage and is enabled for temperature, gas and humidity control as well as equipped with chip and tubing holder. The applied double-layered microfluidic chip allows the predetermined positioning and concentration of cells while the gas permeable PDMS material facilitates pH control via CO2 levels throughout the chip. We demonstrate the functionality of this system by culturing C2C12 murine myoblasts in buffer free medium within its confines for up to 26 hours. We moreover demonstrated the system's compatibility with various chip configurations, other cells lines (HEK-293 cells) and for longer-term culturing. The cost-efficient system are applicable for any type of PDMS-based cell culture system. Detailed technical drawings and specification to reproduce this perfusion incubation system is provided in the ESI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Kurth
- ETH Zurich, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland.
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Guckenberger DJ, Berthier E, Beebe DJ. High-density self-contained microfluidic KOALA kits for use by everyone. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 20:146-53. [PMID: 25424385 DOI: 10.1177/2211068214560609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cell-based assays are essential tools used by research labs in a wide range of fields, including cell biology, toxicology, and natural product discovery labs. However, in some situations, the need for cell-based assays does not justify the costs of maintaining cell culture facilities and retaining skilled staff. The kit-on-a-lid assay (KOALA) technology enables accessible low-cost and prepackageable microfluidic platforms that can be operated with minimal infrastructure or training. Here, we demonstrate and characterize high-density KOALA methods for high-throughput applications, achieving an assay density comparable to that of a 384-well plate and usability by hand with no liquid-handling equipment. We show the potential for high-content screening and complex assays such as quantitative immunochemistry assays requiring multiple steps and reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Guckenberger
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wisconsin Institutes for Medical Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Erwin Berthier
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wisconsin Institutes for Medical Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - David J Beebe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wisconsin Institutes for Medical Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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Pettersen EO, Ebbesen P, Gieling RG, Williams KJ, Dubois L, Lambin P, Ward C, Meehan J, Kunkler IH, Langdon SP, Ree AH, Flatmark K, Lyng H, Calzada MJ, Peso LD, Landazuri MO, Görlach A, Flamm H, Kieninger J, Urban G, Weltin A, Singleton DC, Haider S, Buffa FM, Harris AL, Scozzafava A, Supuran CT, Moser I, Jobst G, Busk M, Toustrup K, Overgaard J, Alsner J, Pouyssegur J, Chiche J, Mazure N, Marchiq I, Parks S, Ahmed A, Ashcroft M, Pastorekova S, Cao Y, Rouschop KM, Wouters BG, Koritzinsky M, Mujcic H, Cojocari D. Targeting tumour hypoxia to prevent cancer metastasis. From biology, biosensing and technology to drug development: the METOXIA consortium. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2014; 30:689-721. [PMID: 25347767 DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2014.966704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The hypoxic areas of solid cancers represent a negative prognostic factor irrespective of which treatment modality is chosen for the patient. Still, after almost 80 years of focus on the problems created by hypoxia in solid tumours, we still largely lack methods to deal efficiently with these treatment-resistant cells. The consequences of this lack may be serious for many patients: Not only is there a negative correlation between the hypoxic fraction in tumours and the outcome of radiotherapy as well as many types of chemotherapy, a correlation has been shown between the hypoxic fraction in tumours and cancer metastasis. Thus, on a fundamental basis the great variety of problems related to hypoxia in cancer treatment has to do with the broad range of functions oxygen (and lack of oxygen) have in cells and tissues. Therefore, activation-deactivation of oxygen-regulated cascades related to metabolism or external signalling are important areas for the identification of mechanisms as potential targets for hypoxia-specific treatment. Also the chemistry related to reactive oxygen radicals (ROS) and the biological handling of ROS are part of the problem complex. The problem is further complicated by the great variety in oxygen concentrations found in tissues. For tumour hypoxia to be used as a marker for individualisation of treatment there is a need for non-invasive methods to measure oxygen routinely in patient tumours. A large-scale collaborative EU-financed project 2009-2014 denoted METOXIA has studied all the mentioned aspects of hypoxia with the aim of selecting potential targets for new hypoxia-specific therapy and develop the first stage of tests for this therapy. A new non-invasive PET-imaging method based on the 2-nitroimidazole [(18)F]-HX4 was found to be promising in a clinical trial on NSCLC patients. New preclinical models for testing of the metastatic potential of cells were developed, both in vitro (2D as well as 3D models) and in mice (orthotopic grafting). Low density quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)-based assays were developed measuring multiple hypoxia-responsive markers in parallel to identify tumour hypoxia-related patterns of gene expression. As possible targets for new therapy two main regulatory cascades were prioritised: The hypoxia-inducible-factor (HIF)-regulated cascades operating at moderate to weak hypoxia (<1% O(2)), and the unfolded protein response (UPR) activated by endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) stress and operating at more severe hypoxia (<0.2%). The prioritised targets were the HIF-regulated proteins carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX), the lactate transporter MCT4 and the PERK/eIF2α/ATF4-arm of the UPR. The METOXIA project has developed patented compounds targeting CAIX with a preclinical documented effect. Since hypoxia-specific treatments alone are not curative they will have to be combined with traditional anti-cancer therapy to eradicate the aerobic cancer cell population as well.
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Carney CM, Muszynski JL, Strotman LN, Lewis SR, O'Connell RL, Beebe DJ, Theberge AB, Jorgensen JS. Cellular microenvironment dictates androgen production by murine fetal Leydig cells in primary culture. Biol Reprod 2014; 91:85. [PMID: 25143354 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.114.118570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the fact that fetal Leydig cells are recognized as the primary source of androgens in male embryos, the mechanisms by which steroidogenesis occurs within the developing testis remain unclear. A genetic approach was used to visualize and isolate fetal Leydig cells from remaining cells within developing mouse testes. Cyp11a1-Cre mice were bred to mT/mG dual reporter mice to target membrane-tagged enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) within steroidogenic cells, whereas other cells expressed membrane-tagged tandem-dimer tomato red. Fetal Leydig cell identity was validated using double-labeled immunohistochemistry against GFP and the steroidogenic enzyme 3beta-HSD, and cells were successfully isolated as indicated by qPCR results from sorted cell populations. Because fetal Leydig cells must collaborate with neighboring cells to synthesize testosterone, we hypothesized that the fetal Leydig cell microenvironment defined their capacity for androgen production. Microfluidic culture devices were used to measure androstenedione and testosterone production of fetal Leydig cells that were cultured in cell-cell contact within a mixed population, were isolated but remained in medium contact via compartmentalized co-culture with other testicular cells, or were isolated and cultured alone. Results showed that fetal Leydig cells maintained their identity and steroidogenic activity for 3-5 days in primary culture. Microenvironment dictated proficiency of testosterone production. As expected, fetal Leydig cells produced androstenedione but not testosterone when cultured in isolation. More testosterone accumulated in medium from mixed cultures than from compartmentalized co-cultures initially; however, co-cultures maintained testosterone synthesis for a longer time. These data suggest that a combination of cell-cell contact and soluble factors constitute the ideal microenvironment for fetal Leydig cell activity in primary culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen M Carney
- Department of Comparative Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Jessica L Muszynski
- Department of Comparative Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Lindsay N Strotman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Samantha R Lewis
- Department of Comparative Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Rachel L O'Connell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - David J Beebe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Ashleigh B Theberge
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Department of Urology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Joan S Jorgensen
- Department of Comparative Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
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17
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Bricks T, Paullier P, Legendre A, Fleury MJ, Zeller P, Merlier F, Anton PM, Leclerc E. Development of a new microfluidic platform integrating co-cultures of intestinal and liver cell lines. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:885-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Halldorsson S, Lucumi E, Gómez-Sjöberg R, Fleming RMT. Advantages and challenges of microfluidic cell culture in polydimethylsiloxane devices. Biosens Bioelectron 2014; 63:218-231. [PMID: 25105943 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 572] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/12/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Culture of cells using various microfluidic devices is becoming more common within experimental cell biology. At the same time, a technological radiation of microfluidic cell culture device designs is currently in progress. Ultimately, the utility of microfluidic cell culture will be determined by its capacity to permit new insights into cellular function. Especially insights that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to obtain with macroscopic cell culture in traditional polystyrene dishes, flasks or well-plates. Many decades of heuristic optimization have gone into perfecting conventional cell culture devices and protocols. In comparison, even for the most commonly used microfluidic cell culture devices, such as those fabricated from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), collective understanding of the differences in cellular behavior between microfluidic and macroscopic culture is still developing. Moving in vitro culture from macroscopic culture to PDMS based devices can come with unforeseen challenges. Changes in device material, surface coating, cell number per unit surface area or per unit media volume may all affect the outcome of otherwise standard protocols. In this review, we outline some of the advantages and challenges that may accompany a transition from macroscopic to microfluidic cell culture. We focus on decisive factors that distinguish macroscopic from microfluidic cell culture to encourage a reconsideration of how macroscopic cell culture principles might apply to microfluidic cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skarphedinn Halldorsson
- Center for Systems Biology and Biomedical Center, University of Iceland, Sturlugata 8, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Edinson Lucumi
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Rafael Gómez-Sjöberg
- Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Ronan M T Fleming
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, 7 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg.
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Young EWK. Cells, tissues, and organs on chips: challenges and opportunities for the cancer tumor microenvironment. Integr Biol (Camb) 2014; 5:1096-109. [PMID: 23799587 DOI: 10.1039/c3ib40076j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The transition to increasingly sophisticated microfluidic systems has led to the emergence of "organ-on-chip" technology that can faithfully recapitulate organ-level function. Given the rapid progress at the interface between microfluidics and cell biology, there is need to provide a focused evaluation of the state-of-the-art in microfluidic systems for cancer research to advance development, accelerate discovery of novel insights, and facilitate cooperation between engineers, biologists and oncologists in the clinic. Here, we provide a focused review of microfluidics technology from cells- and tissues- to organs-on-chips with application toward studying the tumor microenvironment. Key aspects of the tumor microenvironment including angiogenesis, hypoxia, biochemical gradients, tumor-stromal interactions, and the extracellular matrix are summarized for both solid tumors and non-solid hematologic malignancies. An overview of microfluidic systems designed specifically to answer questions related to different aspects of the tumor microenvironment is provided, followed by an examination of how these systems offer new opportunities to study outstanding challenges related to the major cancer hallmarks. Challenges also remain for microfluidics engineers, but it is hoped that cooperation between engineers and biologists at the intersection of their respective fields will lead to significant impact on the utility of organs-on-chips in cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmond W K Young
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, 5 King's College Road, MC314B, Toronto, ON M5S 3G8, Canada.
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Culbertson CT, Mickleburgh TG, Stewart-James SA, Sellens KA, Pressnall M. Micro total analysis systems: fundamental advances and biological applications. Anal Chem 2014; 86:95-118. [PMID: 24274655 PMCID: PMC3951881 DOI: 10.1021/ac403688g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tom G. Mickleburgh
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | | | - Kathleen A. Sellens
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Melissa Pressnall
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
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Byun CK, Abi-Samra K, Cho YK, Takayama S. Pumps for microfluidic cell culture. Electrophoresis 2013; 35:245-57. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201300205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chang Kyu Byun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST); Eonyang-eop; Ulju-gun Ulsan Republic of Korea
| | - Kameel Abi-Samra
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST); Eonyang-eop; Ulju-gun Ulsan Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon-Kyoung Cho
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST); Eonyang-eop; Ulju-gun Ulsan Republic of Korea
| | - Shuichi Takayama
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST); Eonyang-eop; Ulju-gun Ulsan Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan; Biointerfaces Institute; Ann Arbor MI USA
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