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Rozsypal T. Persistence of A-234 nerve agent on indoor surfaces. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 357:141968. [PMID: 38615965 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Understanding the fundamental physical characteristics of extremely toxic compounds and their behavior across different environments plays a crucial role in assessing their danger. Additionally, this knowledge informs the development of protocols for gathering forensic evidence related to harmful chemicals misuse. In 2018, former Russian spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter were poisoned in Salisbury, England, with a substance later identified as the unconventional nerve agent A-234. Contamination with the compound was found on items inside Skripal's home. The aim of this paper was to determine the persistence of A-234 on selected indoor surfaces. Ceramics, aluminum can, laminated chipboard, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) floor tile, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle, acrylic paint and computer keyboard were used as matrices. The decrease in surface contamination and further fate of the compound was monitored for 12 weeks. Persistence determination involved optimizing the wipe sampling method. Simultaneously, evaporation from the surface and permeation of the contaminant into the matrix were closely monitored. The experimental findings indicate that the nerve agent exhibits remarkable persistence, particularly on impermeable surfaces. Notably, the process of A-234 evaporation plays a minor role in determining its fate, with detectable concentrations observed solely above solid, non-porous surfaces such as ceramics and aluminum can. The surface persistence half-life varied significantly, ranging from 12 min to 478 days, depending on the material. The article has implications for emergency response protocols, decontamination strategies, public health and crime scene investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Rozsypal
- Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Defence Institute, University of Defence, Vita Nejedleho 1, 68203, Vyskov, Czech Republic.
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2
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Fahy WD, Wania F, Abbatt JPD. When Does Multiphase Chemistry Influence Indoor Chemical Fate? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:4257-4267. [PMID: 38380897 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Human chemical exposure often occurs indoors, where large variability in contaminant concentrations and indoor chemical dynamics make assessments of these exposures challenging. A major source of uncertainty lies in the rates of chemical transformations which, due to high surface-to-volume ratios and rapid air change rates relative to rates of gas-phase reactions indoors, are largely gas-surface multiphase processes. It remains unclear how important such chemistry is in controlling indoor chemical lifetimes and, therefore, human exposure to both parent compounds and transformation products. We present a multimedia steady-state fugacity-based model to assess the importance of multiphase chemistry relative to cleaning and mass transfer losses, examine how the physicochemical properties of compounds and features of the indoor environment affect these processes, and investigate uncertainties pertaining to indoor multiphase chemistry and chemical lifetimes. We find that multiphase reactions can play an important role in chemical fate indoors for reactive compounds with low volatility, i.e., octanol-air equilibrium partitioning ratios (Koa) above 108, with the impact of this chemistry dependent on chemical identity, oxidant type and concentration, and other parameters. This work highlights the need for further research into indoor chemical dynamics and multiphase chemistry to constrain human exposure to chemicals in the built environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D Fahy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Frank Wania
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto at Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada
| | - Jonathan P D Abbatt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
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Rozsypal T. Contaminated disposable rubber gloves as evidence samples after a chemical attack with nerve agents. Drug Test Anal 2023. [PMID: 36912582 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Nerve agents have been used recently in the Syrian civil war. Collecting relevant samples for retrospective identification of an attack is often problematic. The article deals with the possibility of using contaminated gloves as an analytical sample for evidence of the chemical weapons use. There have not yet been published studies dealing with the identification of chemical warfare agents in this type of matrix, where the diversity of chemical properties of gloves and the lifetime of the contaminated sample would be considered. Sarin, soman, and cyclosarin were used as contaminants in the study. Nitrile, latex, and vinyl disposable gloves were chosen as matrices. The identification method was gas chromatography. Six solvents commonly used in military laboratories were tested as extractants. The extraction procedure was optimized in terms of the appropriate method (vortex) and the required extraction time (1 min) and resulted in significant reduction in sample preparation time. The chromatographic background of the extracts was also monitored in order to find a method with the least number of peaks interfering in the identification. Suitable solvents were hexane and acetonitrile. The lifetime of the sample was also investigated. The worst result was recorded for latex. For individual contaminants, the time varied depending on the volatility. The developed procedures were successfully validated within a sample handling effects scenario. The results demonstrate that in the event of an ongoing military risk at the site of an attack, even discarded disposable rubber glove type samples can be used as evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Rozsypal
- Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Defence Institute, University of Defence, Vyskov, Czech Republic
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de Bruin-Hoegée M, Lamriti L, Langenberg JP, Olivier RCM, Chau LF, van der Schans MJ, Noort D, van Asten AC. Verification of exposure to chemical warfare agents through analysis of persistent biomarkers in plants. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2023; 15:142-153. [PMID: 36524843 DOI: 10.1039/d2ay01650h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The continuing threats of military conflicts and terrorism may involve the misuse of chemical weapons. The present study aims to use environmental samples to find evidence of the release of such agents at an incident scene. A novel approach was developed for identifying protein adducts in plants. Basil (Ocimum basilicum), bay laurel leaf (Laurus nobilis) and stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) were exposed to 2.5 to 150 mg m-3 sulfur mustard, 2.5 to 250 mg m-3 sarin, and 0.5 to 25 g m-3 chlorine gas. The vapors of the selected chemicals were generated under controlled conditions in a dedicated set-up. After sample preparation and digestion, the samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS), respectively. In the case of chlorine exposure, it was found that 3-chloro- and 3,5-dichlorotyrosine adducts were formed. As a result of sarin exposure, the o-isopropyl methylphosphonic acid adduct to tyrosine could be analyzed, and after sulfur mustard exposure the N1- and N3-HETE-histidine adducts were identified. The lowest vapor exposure levels for which these plant adducts could be detected, were 2.5 mg m-3 for sarin, 50 mg m-3 for chlorine and 12.5 mg m-3 for sulfur mustard. Additionally, protein adducts following a liquid exposure of only 2 nmol Novichock A-234, 0.4 nmol sarin and 0.2 nmol sulfur mustard could still be observed. For both vapor and liquid exposure, the amount of adduct formed increased with the level of exposure. In all cases synthetic reference standards were used for unambiguous identification. The window of opportunity for investigation of agent exposure through the analysis of plant material was found to be remarkably long. Even three months after the actual exposure, the biomarkers could still be detected in the living plants, as well as in dried leaves. An important benefit of the current method is that a relatively simple and generic sample work-up procedure can be applied for all agents studied. In conclusion, the presented work clearly demonstrates the possibility of analyzing chemical warfare agent biomarkers in plants, which is useful for forensic reconstructions, including the investigation into alleged use in conflict areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam de Bruin-Hoegée
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090GD Amsterdam, Netherlands
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, 2288GJ Rijswijk, Netherlands.
| | - Latifa Lamriti
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090GD Amsterdam, Netherlands
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, 2288GJ Rijswijk, Netherlands.
| | - Jan P Langenberg
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, 2288GJ Rijswijk, Netherlands.
| | - René C M Olivier
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, 2288GJ Rijswijk, Netherlands.
| | - Lai Fun Chau
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, 2288GJ Rijswijk, Netherlands.
| | - Marcel J van der Schans
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, 2288GJ Rijswijk, Netherlands.
| | - Daan Noort
- TNO Defence, Safety and Security, Dep. CBRN Protection, Lange Kleiweg 137, 2288GJ Rijswijk, Netherlands.
| | - Arian C van Asten
- van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090GD Amsterdam, Netherlands
- CLHC, Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94157, 1090GD Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Leninskii MA, Savelieva EI, Karakashev GV, Vasilieva IA, Samchenko NA. Determination of the Conversion Products of Toxic organophosphorus substances in Construction Materials Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Tandem Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934822130020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Vokuev M, Baygildiev T, Braun A, Frolova A, Rybalchenko I, Rodin I. Monitoring of hydrolysis products of organophosphorus nerve agents in plant material and soil by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1685:463604. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Dowling S, McBride EM, McKenna J, Glaros T, Manicke NE. Direct soil analysis by paper spray mass spectrometry: Detection of drugs and chemical warfare agent hydrolysis products. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2019.100206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Sarvin B, Himmelsbach M, Baygildiev T, Shpigun O, Rodin I, Stavrianidi A, Buchberger W. Nerve agent markers screening after accumulation in garden cress (Lepidium sativum) used as a model plant object. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1597:214-219. [PMID: 31010635 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In this research an accumulation of nerve agent markers in garden cress (Lepidium sativum) as a model plant object was studied using LC-QTOF hybrid system. For the determination of methylphosphonic acid and alkyl methylphosphonates, which are specific markers of sarin, soman, VR and VX, simple and sensitive approach was developed. Direct analysis of aqueous extracts on the reversed phase column with polar endcapping allowed to achieve satisfactory retention factor for methylphosphonic acid, which has high polarity and is usually very weakly retained on the ordinary reversed phase columns. Application of the QTOF mass spectrometer with high mass resolution led to the increase in the accuracy of the conducted measurements. The HPLC-HRMS technique developed exclusively for this study has been validated for linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, precision, accuracy and matrix effect prior to the analysis of plant extract samples. Hydroponic growth model was employed to examine accumulation of nerve agent markers in garden cress. It was found that after elimination of nerve agent markers from the plant growth medium, garden cress was able to store these substances for at least 5 weeks providing high retrospectivity of the analysis. Moreover, during the cress growth, no metabolization of alkyl methylphosphonates was observed. This allows not only to reveal the fact of nerve agents release into environment, but also to define its type after a long period of time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Sarvin
- Faculty of Biology, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 320003, Haifa, Israel; Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Markus Himmelsbach
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenberger Strasse 69, 4040, Linz, Austria
| | - Timur Baygildiev
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia
| | - Oleg Shpigun
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia
| | - Igor Rodin
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrey Stavrianidi
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Wolfgang Buchberger
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenberger Strasse 69, 4040, Linz, Austria
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B’Hymer C. A Brief Overview of HPLC–MS Analysis of Alkyl Methylphosphonic Acid Degradation Products of Nerve Agents. J Chromatogr Sci 2019; 57:606-617. [DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmz034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe analysis of degradation products from the classic chemical warfare nerve agents by high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry has been of much interest in recent years owing to the possible use as a terrorist weapon, and the incidents of chemical weapon usage in recent years in war torn countries. The alkyl methylphosphonic acid degradation products are of a particular interest, and they represent a specific chromatographic technical challenge for use in typical separation systems. Various published methods are summarized in this review and some of the problems associated with the analysis of these compounds are discussed. Future trends of the analysis in this area of research are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clayton B’Hymer
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Applied Research and Technology, 1090 Tusculum Avenue, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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Witkiewicz Z, Neffe S, Sliwka E, Quagliano J. Analysis of the Precursors, Simulants and Degradation Products of Chemical Warfare Agents. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2018. [PMID: 29533075 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2018.1439366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in analysis of precursors, simulants and degradation products of chemical warfare agents (CWA) are reviewed. Fast and reliable analysis of precursors, simulants and CWA degradation products is extremely important at a time, when more and more terrorist groups and radical non-state organizations use or plan to use chemical weapons to achieve their own psychological, political and military goals. The review covers the open source literature analysis after the time, when the chemical weapons convention had come into force (1997). The authors stated that during last 15 years increased number of laboratories are focused not only on trace analysis of CWA (mostly nerve and blister agents) in environmental and biological samples, but the growing number of research are devoted to instrumental analysis of precursors and degradation products of these substances. The identification of low-level concentration of CWA degradation products is often more important and difficult than the original CWA, because of lower level of concentration and a very large number of compounds present in environmental and biological samples. Many of them are hydrolysis products and are present in samples in the ionic form. For this reason, two or three instrumental methods are used to perform a reliable analysis of these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zygfryd Witkiewicz
- a Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry , Military University of Technology , Warsaw , Poland
| | - Slawomir Neffe
- a Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry , Military University of Technology , Warsaw , Poland
| | - Ewa Sliwka
- b Division of Chemistry and Technology of Fuel , Wroclaw University of Technology , Wroclaw , Poland
| | - Javier Quagliano
- c Applied Chemistry Department , Argentine Institute for Scientific and Technical Research for the Defense (CITEDEF) , Buenos Aires , Argentina
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Chromatographic analysis of chemical compounds related to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Trends Analyt Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2016.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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12
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Pre-column dilution large volume injection ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of multi-class pesticides in cabbages. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1442:53-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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