1
|
Stutzmann C, Peng J, Wu Z, Savoie C, Sirois I, Thibault P, Wheeler AR, Caron E. Unlocking the potential of microfluidics in mass spectrometry-based immunopeptidomics for tumor antigen discovery. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2023; 3:100511. [PMID: 37426761 PMCID: PMC10326451 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
The identification of tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) is critical for developing effective cancer immunotherapies. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based immunopeptidomics has emerged as a powerful tool for identifying TSAs as physical molecules. However, current immunopeptidomics platforms face challenges in measuring low-abundance TSAs in a precise, sensitive, and reproducible manner from small needle-tissue biopsies (<1 mg). Inspired by recent advances in single-cell proteomics, microfluidics technology offers a promising solution to these limitations by providing improved isolation of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-associated peptides with higher sensitivity. In this context, we highlight the challenges in sample preparation and the rationale for developing microfluidics technology in immunopeptidomics. Additionally, we provide an overview of promising microfluidic methods, including microchip pillar arrays, valved-based systems, droplet microfluidics, and digital microfluidics, and discuss the latest research on their application in MS-based immunopeptidomics and single-cell proteomics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jiaxi Peng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Zhaoguan Wu
- CHU Sainte Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | | | - Pierre Thibault
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Aaron R. Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Etienne Caron
- CHU Sainte Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Cellular Biology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Alidoust M, Baharfar M, Manouchehri M, Yamini Y, Tajik M, Seidi S. Emergence of microfluidic devices in sample extraction; an overview of diverse methodologies, principals, and recent advancements. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
|
3
|
Cheng H, Liu H, Li W, Li M. Recent advances in magnetic digital microfluidic platforms. Electrophoresis 2021; 42:2329-2346. [PMID: 34196022 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202100088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Magnetic Digital microfluidics (DMF), which enables the manipulation of droplets containing different types of samples and reagents by permanent magnets or electromagnet arrays, has been used as a promising platform technology for bioanalytical and preparative assays. This is due to its unique advantages such as simple and "power free" operation, easy assembly, great compatibility with auto control systems, and dual functionality of magnetic particles (actuation and target attachment). Over the past decades, magnetic DMF technique has gained a widespread attention in many fields such as sample-to-answer molecular diagnostics, immunoassays, cell assays, on-demand chemical synthesis, and single-cell manipulation. In the first part of this review, we summarised features of magnetic DMF. Then, we introduced the actuation mechanisms and fabrication of magnetic DMF. Furthermore, we discussed five main applications of magnetic DMF, namely drug screening, protein assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), cell manipulation, and chemical analysis and synthesis. In the last part of the review, current challenges and limitations with magnetic DMF technique were discussed, such as biocompatibility, automation of microdroplet control systems, and microdroplet evaporation, with an eye on towards future development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Cheng
- Laboratoire de Thermique et Energie de Nantes (LTEN), UMR CNRS 6607, Polytech' Nantes-Université de Nantes, Nantes Cedex 03, France.,School of Mechanical, Materials, Mechatronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Hangrui Liu
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Weihua Li
- School of Mechanical, Materials, Mechatronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Ming Li
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Biomolecular Discovery Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Paul S, Moon H. Drop-to-drop liquid-liquid extraction of DNA in an electrowetting-on-dielectric digital microfluidics. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2021; 15:034110. [PMID: 34136060 PMCID: PMC8189723 DOI: 10.1063/5.0054003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Recent advancements in microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip technologies enabled miniaturization and automation of many downstream nucleic acid analysis steps such as PCR. However, DNA extraction/isolation protocol remains a stand-alone sample preparation step. For a quick sample-to-result solution, downstream protocols and sample preparation protocols need to be seamlessly integrated into a single lab-on-a-chip platform. As a step toward such integration, this paper introduces microfluidic DNA isolation using the liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) method in the drop-to-drop (DTD) format. The electrowetting-on-dielectric digital microfluidic platform is capable of handling a two-phase liquid system easily, which enables DTD LLE. In this study, the extraction of plasmid DNA (pDNA) from an aqueous sample to an ionic liquid is demonstrated. Prior to pDNA extraction study, the DTD LLE protocol was developed and optimized using organic dyes as solutes. The selective extraction of pDNA in the presence of proteins as interfering molecules is also demonstrated. This work implies that DTD LLE can substitute for magnetic beads steps in standard DNA isolation protocols.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Hyejin Moon
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Li L, Tan D, Liu S, Jiao R, Yang X, Li F, Wu H, Huang W. Optimization of Factor Combinations for Stem Cell Differentiations on a Design-of-Experiment Microfluidic Chip. Anal Chem 2020; 92:14228-14235. [PMID: 33017151 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Directed differentiation of stem cells plays a vital role in cell replacement therapy. Many activators and inhibitors targeting different signaling pathways have been identified to contribute to each step of differentiation. Most studies relied on empirically optimizing the combinations of the aforementioned factors for each step to optimize the efficiency of differentiation, which are time-consuming and nonsystematic. Design-of-experiment (DOE) is a powerful strategy to identify the critical combinations from multiple factors systematically. However, it is prohibitively complicated for typical laboratories, given a large number of potential combinations. Here, we develop a multilayer polymethyl methacrylate-based, reusable microfluidic chip to directly facilitate the DOE in the differentiation of stem cells. The chip consists of an inlet layer and multiple disperse layers. Different solutions are injected simultaneously to the chip through the inlet layer. Subsequently, the channels in the disperse layers split and recombine the flow streams to generate solution combinations based on hard-wired DOE designs. We demonstrated that it is in quantitative agreement with the designs using fluorescent dyes. Moreover, we constructed a human-induced pluripotent stem reporter cell line to improve the consistency of the cellular state measurements and use the chip to identify critical factors for cell differentiation to definitive endoderm (DE). We found that the differentiation efficiencies under various factor combinations are significantly different, and CHIR99201 and GDF8 are the most critical factors for differentiation to DE. Our method is potentially applicable to the optimization of factor combinations for multi-step stem cell differentiation and combinatorial drug screening.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Li
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, 1088 Xueyuan Avenue, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, 518055 Guangdong, China.,Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, 999077 Hong Kong, China
| | - Deng Tan
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, 1088 Xueyuan Avenue, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, 518055 Guangdong, China.,Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, 999077 Hong Kong, China
| | - Shuqin Liu
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, 1088 Xueyuan Avenue, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, 518055 Guangdong, China
| | - Ruifeng Jiao
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, 1088 Xueyuan Avenue, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, 518055 Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaofei Yang
- Translational Medicine Collaborative Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital (Shenzhen People's Hospital), Southern University of Science and Technology, 1017 Dongmen North Road, Luohu District, Shenzhen, 518020 Guangdong, China
| | - Furong Li
- Translational Medicine Collaborative Innovation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital (Shenzhen People's Hospital), Southern University of Science and Technology, 1017 Dongmen North Road, Luohu District, Shenzhen, 518020 Guangdong, China
| | - Hongkai Wu
- Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, 999077 Hong Kong, China.,Guangzhou First People's Hospital, 1 Panfu Rd, Yuexiu District, Guangzhou, 510180 Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Department of Biology, Southern University of Science and Technology, 1088 Xueyuan Avenue, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, 518055 Guangdong, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Park S, Yoon S, Min H, Moon SM, Choi YJ, Kim IS, Lee GH, Kim MS, Seo J, Jung W, Lee CY. Compartmentalized Arrays of Matrix Droplets for Quantitative Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Adsorbed Peptides. Anal Chem 2020; 92:8715-8721. [PMID: 32449357 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) based on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) provides information on the identification and spatial distribution of biomolecules. Quantitative analysis, however, has been challenging largely due to heterogeneity in both the size of the matrix crystals and the extraction area. In this work, we present a compartmentalized elastomeric stamp for quantitative MALDI-MSI of adsorbed peptides. Filling the compartments with matrix solution and stamping onto a planar substrate extract and concentrate analytes adsorbed in each compartment into a single analyte-matrix cocrystal over the entire stamped area. Walls between compartments help preserve spatial information on the adsorbates. The mass intensity of the cocrystals directly correlates with the surface coverage of analytes, which enables not only quantitative analysis but estimation of an equilibrium constant for the adsorption. We demonstrate via MALDI-MSI relative quantitation of peptides adsorbed along a microchannel with varying surface coverages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanghwan Park
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Sook Yoon
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyegi Min
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Min Moon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Ji Choi
- In Vivo Research Center, UNIST Central Research Facilities, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Il Shin Kim
- In Vivo Research Center, UNIST Central Research Facilities, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Ga Hyang Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Sun Kim
- Center for Scientific Instrumentation, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Daejeon 34133, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungju Seo
- Center for Scientific Instrumentation, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Daejeon 34133, Republic of Korea
| | - Woonggyu Jung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Young Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhong J, Riordon J, Wu TC, Edwards H, Wheeler AR, Pardee K, Aspuru-Guzik A, Sinton D. When robotics met fluidics. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:709-716. [PMID: 31895394 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc01042d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
High-throughput fluidic technologies have increased the speed and accuracy of fluid processing to the extent that unlocking further gains will require replacing the human operator with a robotic counterpart. Recent advances in chemistry and biology, such as gene editing, have further exacerbated the need for smart, high-throughput experimentation. A growing number of innovations at the intersection of robotics and fluidics illustrate the tremendous opportunity in achieving fully self-driving fluid systems. We envision that the fields of synthetic chemistry and synthetic biology will be the first beneficiaries of AI-directed robotic and fluidic systems, and largely fall within two modalities: complex integrated centralized facilities that produce data, and distributed systems that synthesize products and conduct disease surveillance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Zhong
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S3G8, Canada.
| | - Jason Riordon
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S3G8, Canada.
| | - Tony C Wu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada and Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Harrison Edwards
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Keith Pardee
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S3G8, Canada. and Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Alán Aspuru-Guzik
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada and Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - David Sinton
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S3G8, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Synthesis and application of magnetic-surfaced pseudo molecularly imprinted polymers for zearalenone pretreatment in cereal samples. Food Chem 2019; 308:125696. [PMID: 31655482 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is a fungal contaminant widely found in grains. In cereal samples, trace zearalenone was extracted and enriched using magnetic-surfaced pseudo molecularly imprinted polymers (SPMIPs) and detected. SPMIPs were prepared with Fe3O4 as the magnetic core, modified halloysites nanotubes as supporting materials, and selective imprinted polymers as shells. Vinyl was modified on the surface of halloysites nanotube. SPMIPs were synthesized with pseudo templates. SPMIPs as the adsorbent of dispersed-solid phase extraction (μ-SPE) were used to purify and enrich ZEA from maize samples. After optimized, the pretreatment method was evaluated. The linearity of the method was ranged within 10-200 ng mL-1. LOD and LOQ were 2.5 ng mL-1 and 8 ng mL-1 respectively. The ZEA spiking recoveries in maize samples ranged within 74.95-88.41% were with good RSDs lower than 4.25%. The developed method was successful applied in maize, oat, and wheat sample treatments and compared.
Collapse
|
9
|
Huang Z, He J, Li Y, Wu C, You L, Wei H, Li K, Zhang S. Preparation of dummy molecularly imprinted polymers for extraction of Zearalenone in grain samples. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1602:11-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
|
10
|
Zhao N, Gu Q, Liu Z, Song F, Pi Z, Liu S. An integrated platform for a high-throughput pharmacokinetic study of glycosides using a boronic acid-functionalized 96-well glass plate. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:9543-9546. [PMID: 31334509 DOI: 10.1039/c9cc04045e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The novel Vial@FPBA strategy was established for a large-scale pharmacokinetic study of glycosides, during which glycosides were absorbed into a boronic acid-functionalized 96-well glass plate and directly desorbed for UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. Hence, specific and high-throughput glycoside enrichment was achieved simultaneously. The LODs were reduced up to 50 times compared to the case of the methanol method. Meanwhile, sample pre-processing time was greatly saved by skipping the protein sedimentation and supernatant concentration steps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ningning Zhao
- National Center of Mass Spectrometry in Changchun and Jilin Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Liu X, Ying G, Liao X, Sun C, Wei F, Xing X, Shi L, Sun Y, Kong W, Zhou L. Cytometric Microbead Magnetic Suspension Array for High-Throughput Ultrasensitive Detection of Aflatoxin B 1. Anal Chem 2018; 91:1194-1202. [PMID: 30520622 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b05278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
High-throughput and low-cost detection of mycotoxins in complex matrices is becoming increasingly urgent but it is still challenging to perform ultrasensitive analyses. Here we report a green and practical cytometric microbead magnetic suspension array (CBMSA) strategy for rapid and economical detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in multiple batches of lotus seed samples. The protocol included (1) fabrication of suspension array chips by immobilizing biotin-modified bovine serum albumin-AFB1 (antigen) onto the surface of streptavidin-coated magnetic microbeads in a multiwell array, (2) indirect immunocompetition of antigen and target of AFB1 in lotus seed samples with the specific antibodies, (3) rapid magnetic separation regardless of complex pretreatment steps, and (4) ultrasensitive fluorescence detection of fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled goat anti-mouse immunoglobulin G (FITC-IgG) probes. After systematic optimization of some crucial parameters, the developed CBMSA assay allowed for ultrasensitive detection of AFB1 with limit of detection as low as 7.8125 pg·kg-1. For high-throughput analysis, the CBMSA technique was capable of on-site co-instantaneous detection of 50-100 samples in one operation within 30 s, only needing a small amount (50 μL) of solution, which is much cheaper, greener, and more user-friendly than conventional techniques. Moreover, CBMSA with magnetic separation is free of multiple centrifugation and cleanup steps to avoid unpredictable loss of targets. Since various capture and fluorescent probes can be randomly constructed and bound onto the surface of magnetic microbeads to establish an ultrasensitive detection system, the CBMSA technique is very promising for more trace analytes in complex matrices and for broad point-of-need applications, such as drug screening and real-time high-throughput analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofei Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China
| | - Guangyao Ying
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China.,College of Pharmacy , Jinzhou Medical University , Jinzhou 121001 , China
| | - Xiaofang Liao
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China
| | - Chaonan Sun
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China
| | - Fang Wei
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China.,College of Pharmacy , Jinzhou Medical University , Jinzhou 121001 , China
| | - Xiaoyan Xing
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China
| | - Linchun Shi
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China
| | - Yifan Sun
- Institute of Medical Information , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences , Beijing 100020 , China
| | - Weijun Kong
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China
| | - Lidong Zhou
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development , Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100193 , China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Single-Layered Microfluidic Network-Based Combinatorial Dilution for Standard Simplex Lattice Design. MICROMACHINES 2018; 9:mi9100489. [PMID: 30424422 PMCID: PMC6215202 DOI: 10.3390/mi9100489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we presented a straightforward strategy to generate 15 combinations of three samples based on an experimental simplex lattice design using a single-layer microfluidic network. First, we investigated the performances of the plain structural and the groove structural combinatorial devices by computational simulation (CFD-ACE+). The simulated output concentrations were extremely close to the desirable values within an absolute error of less than 1%. Based on the simulated designs, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices were fabricated with soft lithography and tested with fluorescent dye (sodium salt). The mixing results for 15 combinations showed good performance, with an absolute error of less than 4%. We also investigated two liquid handling methods (bottom⁻up and top⁻down) for high-throughput screening and assay. The liquid-handling methods were successfully accomplished by adding the systematic structured groove sets on the mixing channels.
Collapse
|
13
|
Molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) membrane assisted direct spray ionization mass spectrometry for agrochemicals screening in foodstuffs. Talanta 2018; 178:507-514. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.09.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
14
|
Pedde RD, Li H, Borchers CH, Akbari M. Microfluidic-Mass Spectrometry Interfaces for Translational Proteomics. Trends Biotechnol 2017; 35:954-970. [PMID: 28755975 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Interfacing mass spectrometry (MS) with microfluidic chips (μchip-MS) holds considerable potential to transform a clinician's toolbox, providing translatable methods for the early detection, diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of noncommunicable diseases by streamlining and integrating laborious sample preparation workflows on high-throughput, user-friendly platforms. Overcoming the limitations of competitive immunoassays - currently the gold standard in clinical proteomics - μchip-MS can provide unprecedented access to complex proteomic assays having high sensitivity and specificity, but without the labor, costs, and complexities associated with conventional MS sample processing. This review surveys recent μchip-MS systems for clinical applications and examines their emerging role in streamlining the development and translation of MS-based proteomic assays by alleviating many of the challenges that currently inhibit widespread clinical adoption.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Daniel Pedde
- Laboratory for Innovations in Microengineering (LiME), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd., Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada; University of Victoria-Genome British Columbia Proteomics Centre, University of Victoria, 3101-4464 Markham St., Victoria, BC, V8Z 7X8, Canada
| | - Huiyan Li
- University of Victoria-Genome British Columbia Proteomics Centre, University of Victoria, 3101-4464 Markham St., Victoria, BC, V8Z 7X8, Canada
| | - Christoph H Borchers
- University of Victoria-Genome British Columbia Proteomics Centre, University of Victoria, 3101-4464 Markham St., Victoria, BC, V8Z 7X8, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd., Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada; Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology, McGill University, 5100 de Maisonneuve Blvd. West, Suite 720, Montreal, QC, H4A 3T2, Canada; Proteomics Centre, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, 3755 Cote-Ste-Catherine Road, Montreal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada.
| | - Mohsen Akbari
- Laboratory for Innovations in Microengineering (LiME), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd., Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada; Centre for Biomedical Research (CBR), University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd., Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada; Centre for Advanced Materials and Related Technologies (CAMTEC), University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd., Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Rackus DG, de Campos RPS, Chan C, Karcz MM, Seale B, Narahari T, Dixon C, Chamberlain MD, Wheeler AR. Pre-concentration by liquid intake by paper (P-CLIP): a new technique for large volumes and digital microfluidics. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 17:2272-2280. [PMID: 28604891 PMCID: PMC7734381 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc00440k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic platforms are an attractive option for incorporating complex fluid handling into low-cost and rapid diagnostic tests. A persistent challenge for microfluidics, however, is the mismatch in the "world-to-chip" interface - it is challenging to detect analytes present at low concentrations in systems that can only handle small volumes of sample. Here we describe a new technique termed pre-concentration by liquid intake by paper (P-CLIP) that addresses this mismatch, allowing digital microfluidics to interface with volumes on the order of hundreds of microliters. In P-CLIP, a virtual microchannel is generated to pass a large volume through the device; analytes captured on magnetic particles can be isolated and then resuspended into smaller volumes for further processing and analysis. We characterize this method and demonstrate its utility with an immunoassay for Plasmodium falciparum lactate dehydrogenase, a malaria biomarker, and propose that the P-CLIP strategy may be useful for a wide range of applications that are currently limited by low-abundance analytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Darius G Rackus
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Richard P S de Campos
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Calvin Chan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Maria M Karcz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Brendon Seale
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Tanya Narahari
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Christopher Dixon
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - M Dean Chamberlain
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada and Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St., Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Doonan SR, Bailey RC. K-Channel: A Multifunctional Architecture for Dynamically Reconfigurable Sample Processing in Droplet Microfluidics. Anal Chem 2017; 89:4091-4099. [PMID: 28222260 PMCID: PMC5812353 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b05041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
By rapidly creating libraries of thousands of unique, miniaturized reactors, droplet microfluidics provides a powerful method for automating high-throughput chemical analysis. In order to engineer in-droplet assays, microfluidic devices must add reagents into droplets, remove fluid from droplets, and perform other necessary operations, each typically provided by a unique, specialized geometry. Unfortunately, modifying device performance or changing operations usually requires re-engineering the device among these specialized geometries, a time-consuming and costly process when optimizing in-droplet assays. To address this challenge in implementing droplet chemistry, we have developed the "K-channel," which couples a cross-channel flow to the segmented droplet flow to enable a range of operations on passing droplets. K-channels perform reagent injection (0-100% of droplet volume), fluid extraction (0-50% of droplet volume), and droplet splitting (1:1-1:5 daughter droplet ratio). Instead of modifying device dimensions or channel configuration, adjusting external conditions, such as applied pressure and electric field, selects the K-channel process and tunes its magnitude. Finally, interfacing a device-embedded magnet allows selective capture of 96% of droplet-encapsulated superparamagnetic beads during 1:1 droplet splitting events at ∼400 Hz. Addition of a second K-channel for injection (after the droplet splitting K-channel) enables integrated washing of magnetic beads within rapidly moving droplets. Ultimately, the K-channel provides an exciting opportunity to perform many useful droplet operations across a range of magnitudes without requiring architectural modifications. Therefore, we envision the K-channel as a versatile, easy to use microfluidic component enabling diverse, in-droplet (bio)chemical manipulations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven R. Doonan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Ryan C. Bailey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Solid supports for extraction and preconcentration of proteins and peptides in microfluidic devices: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2016; 955:1-26. [PMID: 28088276 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2016.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Determination of proteins and peptides is among the main challenges of today's bioanalytical chemistry. The application of microchip technology in this field is an exhaustively developed concept that aims to create integrated and fully automated analytical devices able to quantify or detect one or several proteins from a complex matrix. Selective extraction and preconcentration of targeted proteins and peptides especially from biological fluids is of the highest importance for a successful realization of these microsystems. Incorporation of solid structures or supports is a convenient solution employed to face these demands. This review presents a critical view on the latest achievements in sample processing techniques for protein determination using solid supports in microfluidics. The study covers the period from 2006 to 2015 and focuses mainly on the strategies based on microbeads, monolithic materials and membranes. Less common approaches are also briefly discussed. The reviewed literature suggests future trends which are discussed in the concluding remarks.
Collapse
|
18
|
Swyer I, Soong R, Dryden MDM, Fey M, Maas WE, Simpson A, Wheeler AR. Interfacing digital microfluidics with high-field nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:4424-4435. [PMID: 27757467 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc01073c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is extremely powerful for chemical analysis but it suffers from lower mass sensitivity compared to many other analytical detection methods. NMR microcoils have been developed in response to this limitation, but interfacing these coils with small sample volumes is a challenge. We introduce here the first digital microfluidic system capable of interfacing droplets of analyte with microcoils in a high-field NMR spectrometer. A finite element simulation was performed to assist in determining appropriate system parameters. After optimization, droplets inside the spectrometer could be controlled remotely, permitting the observation of processes such as xylose-borate complexation and glucose oxidase catalysis. We propose that the combination of DMF and NMR will be a useful new tool for a wide range of applications in chemical analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ian Swyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George St, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Ronald Soong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1256 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada.
| | - Michael D M Dryden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George St, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Michael Fey
- Bruker BioSpin Corp, 15 Fortune Drive, Billerica, Massachusetts 01821-3991, USA
| | - Werner E Maas
- Bruker BioSpin Corp, 15 Fortune Drive, Billerica, Massachusetts 01821-3991, USA
| | - André Simpson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1256 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada.
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George St, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada and Institute for Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Seale B, Lam C, Rackus DG, Chamberlain MD, Liu C, Wheeler AR. Digital Microfluidics for Immunoprecipitation. Anal Chem 2016; 88:10223-10230. [PMID: 27700039 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Immunoprecipitation (IP) is a common method for isolating a targeted protein from a complex sample such as blood, serum, or cell lysate. In particular, IP is often used as the primary means of target purification for the analysis by mass spectrometry of novel biologically derived pharmaceuticals, with particular utility for the identification of molecules bound to a protein target. Unfortunately, IP is a labor-intensive technique, is difficult to perform in parallel, and has limited options for automation. Furthermore, the technique is typically limited to large sample volumes, making the application of IP cleanup to precious samples nearly impossible. In recognition of these challenges, we introduce a method for performing microscale IP using magnetic particles and digital microfluidics (DMF-IP). The new method allows for 80% recovery of model proteins from approximately microliter volumes of serum in a sample-to-answer run time of approximately 25 min. Uniquely, analytes are eluted from these small samples in a format compatible with direct analysis by mass spectrometry. To extend the technique to be useful for large samples, we also developed a macro-to-microscale interface called preconcentration using liquid intake by paper (P-CLIP). This technique allows for efficient analysis of samples >100× larger than are typically processed on microfluidic devices. As described herein, DMF-IP and P-CLIP-DMF-IP are rapid, automated, and multiplexed methods that have the potential to reduce the time and effort required for IP sample preparations with applications in the fields of pharmacy, biomarker discovery, and protein biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brendon Seale
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Charis Lam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Darius G Rackus
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research , 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - M Dean Chamberlain
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research , 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Chang Liu
- SCIEX , 71 Four Valley Drive, Concord, Ontario L4K 4V8, Canada
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research , 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada.,Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto , 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Gómez-Ríos GA, Reyes-Garcés N, Bojko B, Pawliszyn J. Biocompatible Solid-Phase Microextraction Nanoelectrospray Ionization: An Unexploited Tool in Bioanalysis. Anal Chem 2015; 88:1259-65. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nathaly Reyes-Garcés
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Barbara Bojko
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Patabadige DEW, Jia S, Sibbitts J, Sadeghi J, Sellens K, Culbertson CT. Micro Total Analysis Systems: Fundamental Advances and Applications. Anal Chem 2015; 88:320-38. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Damith E. W. Patabadige
- Department
of Chemistry, Kansas State University, 213 CBC Building, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| | - Shu Jia
- Department
of Chemistry, Kansas State University, 213 CBC Building, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| | - Jay Sibbitts
- Department
of Chemistry, Kansas State University, 213 CBC Building, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| | - Jalal Sadeghi
- Department
of Chemistry, Kansas State University, 213 CBC Building, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
- Laser & Plasma Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, Evin, Tehran, 1983963113, Iran
| | - Kathleen Sellens
- Department
of Chemistry, Kansas State University, 213 CBC Building, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| | - Christopher T. Culbertson
- Department
of Chemistry, Kansas State University, 213 CBC Building, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, United States
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Liu C, Choi K, Kang Y, Kim J, Fobel C, Seale B, Campbell JL, Covey TR, Wheeler AR. Direct Interface between Digital Microfluidics and High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2015; 87:11967-72. [PMID: 26595766 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
We introduce an automated method to facilitate in-line coupling of digital microfluidics (DMF) with HPLC-MS, using a custom, 3D-printed manifold and a custom plugin to the popular open-source control system, DropBot. The method was designed to interface directly with commercial autosamplers (with no prior modification), suggesting that it will be widely accessible for end-users. The system was demonstrated to be compatible with samples dissolved in aqueous buffers and neat methanol and was validated by application to a common steroid-labeling derivatization reaction. We propose that the methods described here will be useful for a wide range of applications, combining the automated sample processing power of DMF with the resolving and analytical capacity of HPLC-MS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,SCIEX, 71 Four Valley Drive, Concord, Ontario L4K 4V8, Canada
| | - Kihwan Choi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Yang Kang
- SCIEX, 71 Four Valley Drive, Concord, Ontario L4K 4V8, Canada
| | - Jihye Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Christian Fobel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Brendon Seale
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | | | - Thomas R Covey
- SCIEX, 71 Four Valley Drive, Concord, Ontario L4K 4V8, Canada
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto , 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Hsieh KT, Liu PH, Urban PL. Automated on-line liquid–liquid extraction system for temporal mass spectrometric analysis of dynamic samples. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 894:35-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.08.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
|
24
|
Zhang C, Manicke NE. Development of a Paper Spray Mass Spectrometry Cartridge with Integrated Solid Phase Extraction for Bioanalysis. Anal Chem 2015; 87:6212-9. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chengsen Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and
Chemical Biology, Indiana University−Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
| | - Nicholas E. Manicke
- Department of Chemistry and
Chemical Biology, Indiana University−Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, United States
| |
Collapse
|