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Obeidat YM, Bany Hamad N, Rawashdeh AM. A solid state electrolyte based enzymatic acetone sensor. Sci Rep 2024; 14:15461. [PMID: 38965300 PMCID: PMC11224388 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-66498-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
This paper introduces a novel solid-state electrolyte-based enzymatic sensor designed for the detection of acetone, along with an examination of its performance under various surface modifications aimed at optimizing its sensing capabilities. To measure acetone concentrations in both liquid and vapor states, cyclic voltammetry and amperometry techniques were employed, utilizing disposable screen-printed electrodes consisting of a platinum working electrode, a platinum counter electrode, and a silver reference electrode. Four different surface modifications, involving different combinations of Nafion (N) and enzyme (E) layers (N + E; N + E + N; N + N + E; N + N + E + N), were tested to identify the most effective configuration for a sensor that can be used for breath acetone detection. The sensor's essential characteristics, including linearity, sensitivity, reproducibility, and limit of detection, were thoroughly evaluated through a range of experiments spanning concentrations from 1 µM to 25 mM. Changes in acetone concentration were monitored by comparing currents readings at different acetone concentrations. The sensor exhibited high sensitivity, and a linear response to acetone concentration in both liquid and gas phases within the specified concentration range, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.92 to 0.98. Furthermore, the sensor achieved a rapid response time of 30-50 s and an impressive detection limit as low as 0.03 µM. The results indicated that the sensor exhibited the best linearity, sensitivity, and limit of detection when four layers were employed (N + N + E + N).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusra M Obeidat
- Department of Electronics Engineering, Hijjawi Faculty for Engineering Technology, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan.
| | - Nour Bany Hamad
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Arts, JUST University, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Abdel Monem Rawashdeh
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Yarmouk University, P.O. Box 566, Irbid, Jordan
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2
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Farka Z, Mickert MJ, Pastucha M, Mikušová Z, Skládal P, Gorris HH. Fortschritte in der optischen Einzelmoleküldetektion: Auf dem Weg zu höchstempfindlichen Bioaffinitätsassays. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201913924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zdeněk Farka
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic
| | - Matthias J. Mickert
- Institut für Analytische Chemie, Chemo- und BiosensorikUniversität Regensburg Universitätsstraße 31 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
| | - Matěj Pastucha
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic
- Department of BiochemistryFaculty of ScienceMasaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Mikušová
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic
- Department of BiochemistryFaculty of ScienceMasaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic
| | - Petr Skládal
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic
- Department of BiochemistryFaculty of ScienceMasaryk University 625 00 Brno Czech Republic
| | - Hans H. Gorris
- Institut für Analytische Chemie, Chemo- und BiosensorikUniversität Regensburg Universitätsstraße 31 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
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Farka Z, Mickert MJ, Pastucha M, Mikušová Z, Skládal P, Gorris HH. Advances in Optical Single-Molecule Detection: En Route to Supersensitive Bioaffinity Assays. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:10746-10773. [PMID: 31869502 PMCID: PMC7318240 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201913924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The ability to detect low concentrations of analytes and in particular low-abundance biomarkers is of fundamental importance, e.g., for early-stage disease diagnosis. The prospect of reaching the ultimate limit of detection has driven the development of single-molecule bioaffinity assays. While many review articles have highlighted the potentials of single-molecule technologies for analytical and diagnostic applications, these technologies are not as widespread in real-world applications as one should expect. This Review provides a theoretical background on single-molecule-or better digital-assays to critically assess their potential compared to traditional analog assays. Selected examples from the literature include bioaffinity assays for the detection of biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and viruses. The structure of the Review highlights the versatility of optical single-molecule labeling techniques, including enzymatic amplification, molecular labels, and innovative nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zdeněk Farka
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University625 00BrnoCzech Republic
| | - Matthias J. Mickert
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Chemo- and BiosensorsUniversity of RegensburgUniversitätsstraße 3193040RegensburgGermany
| | - Matěj Pastucha
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University625 00BrnoCzech Republic
- Department of BiochemistryFaculty of ScienceMasaryk University625 00BrnoCzech Republic
| | - Zuzana Mikušová
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University625 00BrnoCzech Republic
- Department of BiochemistryFaculty of ScienceMasaryk University625 00BrnoCzech Republic
| | - Petr Skládal
- CEITEC – Central European Institute of TechnologyMasaryk University625 00BrnoCzech Republic
- Department of BiochemistryFaculty of ScienceMasaryk University625 00BrnoCzech Republic
| | - Hans H. Gorris
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Chemo- and BiosensorsUniversity of RegensburgUniversitätsstraße 3193040RegensburgGermany
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Fitzgerald JE, Fenniri H. Biomimetic Cross-Reactive Sensor Arrays: Prospects in Biodiagnostics. RSC Adv 2016; 6:80468-80484. [PMID: 28217300 PMCID: PMC5312755 DOI: 10.1039/c6ra16403j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomimetic cross-reactive sensor arrays have been used to detect and analyze a wide variety of vapour and liquid components in applications such as food science, public health and safety, and diagnostics. As technology has advanced over the past three decades, these systems have become selective, sensitive, and affordable. Currently, the need for non-invasive and accurate devices for early disease diagnosis remains a challenge. This review provides an overview of the various types of Biomimetic cross-reactive sensor arrays (also referred to as electronic noses and tongues in the literature), their current use and future directions, and an outlook for future technological development.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Fitzgerald
- Northeastern University, Department of Chemical Engineering, 313 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115-5000, USA
| | - H Fenniri
- Northeastern University, Department of Chemical Engineering, 313 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115-5000, USA
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5
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Xie Z, Cao K, Zhao Y, Bai L, Gu H, Xu H, Gu ZZ. An optical nose chip based on mesoporous colloidal photonic crystal beads. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2014; 26:2413-8. [PMID: 24375812 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201304775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
An optical nose chip is developed using surface functionalized mesoporous colloidal photonic crystal beads as elements. The prepared optical nose chip displays excellent discrimination among a very wide range of compounds, not only the simplex organic vapors from the different or same chemical family, but also the complex expiratory air from different people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoying Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China; Suzhou Key Laboratory of Environment and Biosafety, Research Institute of Southeast University in Suzhou, Suzhou, 215123, China
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6
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Köstereli Z, Scopelliti R, Severin K. Pattern-based sensing of aminoglycosides with fluorescent amphiphiles. Chem Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4sc00737a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
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Liu B, Kong H, Luo A. A cataluminescence-based vapor-sensitive sensor array for discriminating flammable liquid vapors. Talanta 2014; 121:43-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.12.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Revised: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 12/26/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Abstract
The mammalian olfactory system is able to detect many more odorants than the number of receptors it has by utilizing cross-reactive odorant receptors that generate unique response patterns for each odorant. Mimicking the mammalian system, artificial noses combine cross-reactive sensor arrays with pattern recognition algorithms to create robust odor-discrimination systems. The first artificial nose reported in 1982 utilized a tin-oxide sensor array. Since then, however, a wide range of sensor technologies have been developed and commercialized. This review highlights the most commonly employed sensor types in artificial noses: electrical, gravimetric, and optical sensors. The applications of nose systems are also reviewed, covering areas such as food and beverage quality control, chemical warfare agent detection, and medical diagnostics. A brief discussion of future trends for the technology is also provided.
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Trogler WC. Chemical Sensing with Semiconducting Metal Phthalocyanines. STRUCTURE AND BONDING 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/430_2011_59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
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Lin H, Jang M, Suslick KS. Preoxidation for colorimetric sensor array detection of VOCs. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:16786-9. [PMID: 21967478 DOI: 10.1021/ja207718t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A disposable preoxidation technique that dramatically improves the detection and identification of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by a colorimetric sensor array is reported. Passing a vapor stream through a tube packed with chromic acid on silica immediately before the colorimetric sensor array substantially increases the sensitivity to less-reactive VOCs and improves the limits of detection (LODs) ~300-fold, permitting the detection, identification, and discrimination of 20 commonly found indoor VOC pollutants at both their immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) and permissible exposure limit (PEL) concentrations. The LODs of these pollutants were on average 1.4% of their respective PELs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengwei Lin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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11
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Recent developments in handheld and portable optosensing—A review. Anal Chim Acta 2011; 696:27-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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12
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Carey JR, Suslick KS, Hulkower KI, Imlay JA, Imlay KRC, Ingison CK, Ponder JB, Sen A, Wittrig AE. Rapid identification of bacteria with a disposable colorimetric sensing array. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:7571-6. [PMID: 21524080 PMCID: PMC3097425 DOI: 10.1021/ja201634d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rapid identification of both species and even specific strains of human pathogenic bacteria grown on standard agar has been achieved from the volatiles they produce using a disposable colorimetric sensor array in a Petri dish imaged with an inexpensive scanner. All 10 strains of bacteria tested, including Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus and their antibiotic-resistant forms, were identified with 98.8% accuracy within 10 h, a clinically important time frame. Furthermore, the colorimetric sensor arrays also proved useful as a simple research tool for the study of bacterial metabolism and as an easy method for the optimization of bacterial production of fine chemicals or other fermentation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R. Carey
- Dept. of Applied Chemistry, National University of Kaohsiung, 700 Kaohsiung University Rd., Kaosiung 811 Taiwan
| | - Kenneth S. Suslick
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Keren I. Hulkower
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - James A. Imlay
- Dept. of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 601 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Karin R. C. Imlay
- Dept. of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 601 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Crystal K. Ingison
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Jennifer B. Ponder
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Avijit Sen
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Aaron E. Wittrig
- Dept. of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
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Abstract
Porous pigments in which chemically responsive dyes have been immobilized in a matrix of organically modified siloxanes (ormosils) have been prepared and characterized by AFM, TEM, EDS, and optical analysis. In typical chemical sensing applications, an array of 36 different porous ormosil pigments are deposited on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Ballesteros-Gómez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Edificio Anexo Marie Curie, Campus de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Soledad Rubio
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Edificio Anexo Marie Curie, Campus de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
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Feng L, Musto CJ, Kemling JW, Lim SH, Zhong W, Suslick KS. Colorimetric Sensor Array for Determination and Identification of Toxic Industrial Chemicals. Anal Chem 2010; 82:9433-40. [DOI: 10.1021/ac1020886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Feng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States, Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 725 S. Wright Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, United States, and iSense, LLC, 470 Ramona Street, Palo Alto, California 94301, United States
| | - Christopher J. Musto
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States, Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 725 S. Wright Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, United States, and iSense, LLC, 470 Ramona Street, Palo Alto, California 94301, United States
| | - Jonathan W. Kemling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States, Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 725 S. Wright Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, United States, and iSense, LLC, 470 Ramona Street, Palo Alto, California 94301, United States
| | - Sung H. Lim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States, Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 725 S. Wright Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, United States, and iSense, LLC, 470 Ramona Street, Palo Alto, California 94301, United States
| | - Wenxuan Zhong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States, Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 725 S. Wright Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, United States, and iSense, LLC, 470 Ramona Street, Palo Alto, California 94301, United States
| | - Kenneth S. Suslick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States, Department of Statistics, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 725 S. Wright Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, United States, and iSense, LLC, 470 Ramona Street, Palo Alto, California 94301, United States
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Walt DR. Bead-based optical fiber arrays for artificial olfaction. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2010; 14:767-70. [PMID: 20655803 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2010.06.181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2010] [Revised: 06/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This review describes recent advances in using bead-based optical sensor arrays for performing vapor sensing. Sensor arrays based on the mammalian olfactory system have been employed for nearly three decades. Problems with reproducibility, sensor training, and sensitivity have relegated these types of sensors to specialized applications. Optical sensor arrays based on fluorescent microspheres address many of these shortcomings. These sensors provide both spectral and temporal responses resulting in information-rich data that can be processed to identify both simple and complex vapors. Sensor responses can be summed to provide enhanced sensitivity. Portable instrumentation enables the sensor arrays to be used for important field applications. Finally, the artificial nose arrays can be used to test hypotheses about the biological olfactory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Walt
- Tufts University, Department of Chemistry, Medford, MA 02155, USA.
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17
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans H Gorris
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Chemo- and Biosensors, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstrasse 31, 93040 Regensburg, Germany.
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Feng L, Musto CJ, Kemling JW, Lim SH, Suslick KS. A colorimetric sensor array for identification of toxic gases below permissible exposure limits. Chem Commun (Camb) 2010; 46:2037-9. [PMID: 20221484 PMCID: PMC2976522 DOI: 10.1039/b926848k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A colorimetric sensor array has been developed for the rapid and sensitive detection of 20 toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) at their PELs (permissible exposure limits). The color changes in an array of chemically responsive nanoporous pigments provide facile identification of the TICs with an error rate below 0.7%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Feng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Christopher J. Musto
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Jonathan W. Kemling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Sung H. Lim
- iSense LLC, 470 Ramona St., Palo Alto, CA 94301, USA
| | - Kenneth S. Suslick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 S. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Anzenbacher, Jr. P, Lubal P, Buček P, Palacios MA, Kozelkova ME. A practical approach to optical cross-reactive sensor arrays. Chem Soc Rev 2010; 39:3954-79. [DOI: 10.1039/b926220m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 272] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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21
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Borisov SM, Mayr T, Mistlberger G, Klimant I. Dye-Doped Polymeric Particles for Sensing and Imaging. ADVANCED FLUORESCENCE REPORTERS IN CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY II 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-04701-5_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Fiddler MN, Begashaw I, Mickens MA, Collingwood MS, Assefa Z, Bililign S. Laser spectroscopy for atmospheric and environmental sensing. SENSORS 2009; 9:10447-512. [PMID: 22303184 PMCID: PMC3267232 DOI: 10.3390/s91210447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lasers and laser spectroscopic techniques have been extensively used in several applications since their advent, and the subject has been reviewed extensively in the last several decades. This review is focused on three areas of laser spectroscopic applications in atmospheric and environmental sensing; namely laser-induced fluorescence (LIF), cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS), and photoluminescence (PL) techniques used in the detection of solids, liquids, aerosols, trace gases, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc N. Fiddler
- NOAA-ISET Center, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Israel Begashaw
- Department of Physics, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, 1601 E Market Street, Marteena Hall, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Matthew A. Mickens
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, New Science Building, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Energy & Environmental Systems Program, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Michael S. Collingwood
- Energy & Environmental Systems Program, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Zerihun Assefa
- NOAA-ISET Center, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street, New Science Building, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (Z.A.); (S.B.); Tel.: +1-336-285-2328/2255; Fax: +1-336-256-2542/ 334-7124
| | - Solomon Bililign
- NOAA-ISET Center, North Carolina A&T State University, 1601 E Market Street Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Department of Physics, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, 1601 E Market Street, Marteena Hall, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; E-Mail:
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (Z.A.); (S.B.); Tel.: +1-336-285-2328/2255; Fax: +1-336-256-2542/ 334-7124
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