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Bento C, Katz M, Santos MMM, Afonso CAM. Striving for Uniformity: A Review on Advances and Challenges To Achieve Uniform Polyethylene Glycol. Org Process Res Dev 2024; 28:860-890. [PMID: 38660381 PMCID: PMC11036406 DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.3c00428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is the polymer of choice in drug delivery systems due to its biocompatibility and hydrophilicity. For over 20 years, this polymer has been widely used in the drug delivery of small drugs, proteins, oligonucleotides, and liposomes, improving the stability and pharmacokinetics of many drugs. However, despite the extensive clinical experience with PEG, concerns have emerged related to its use. These include hypersensitivity, purity, and nonbiodegradability. Moreover, conventional PEG is a mixture of polymers that can complicate drug synthesis and purification leading to unwanted immunogenic reactions. Studies have shown that uniform PEGylated drugs may be more effective than conventional PEGylated drugs as they can overcome issues related to molecular heterogeneity and immunogenicity. This has led to significant research efforts to develop synthetic procedures to produce uniform PEGs (monodisperse PEGs). As a result, iterative step-by-step controlled synthesis methods have been created over time and have shown promising results. Nonetheless, these procedures have presented numerous challenges due to their iterative nature and the requirement for multiple purification steps, resulting in increased costs and time consumption. Despite these challenges, the synthetic procedures went through several improvements. This review summarizes and discusses recent advances in the synthesis of uniform PEGs and its derivatives with a focus on overall yields, scalability, and purity of the polymers. Additionally, the available characterization methods for assessing polymer monodispersity are discussed as well as uniform PEG applications, side effects, and possible alternative polymers that can overcome the drawbacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Bento
- Hovione
Farmaciência S.A., Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Campus do Lumiar, Edifício
R, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal
- Research
Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Marianna Katz
- Hovione
Farmaciência S.A., Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, Campus do Lumiar, Edifício
R, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria M. M. Santos
- Research
Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Carlos A. M. Afonso
- Research
Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
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2
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Anti-CD44 antibodies grafted immunoaffinity Fe 3O 4@MnO 2 nanozymes with highly oxidase-like catalytic activity for specific detection of triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1249:340947. [PMID: 36868774 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.340947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cell-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (CELISA) is extensively applied for cancer diagnosis and screening because of its simple operation, high sensitivity, and intuitive color change. However, the unstable horseradish peroxidase (HRP), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and non-specificity have led to a high false negative rate, which limits its application. In this study, we have developed an innovative immunoaffinity nanozyme aided CELISA based on anti-CD44 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) bioconjugated manganese dioxide-modified magnetite nanoparticles (Fe3O4@MnO2 NPs) for the specific detection of triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. The CD44FM nanozymes were fabricated to replace unstable HRP and H2O2 to counteract possible negative effects in conventional CELISA. Results suggested that CD44FM nanozymes displayed remarkable oxidase-like activities over an extensive pH and temperature range. The bioconjugation of CD44 mAbs enabled CD44FM nanozymes to enter MDA-MB-231 cells selectively via over-expressed CD44 antigens on the membrane surface of these cells, and then catalyzed oxidation of the chromogenic substrate TMB, further achieving specific detection of these cells. Additionally, this study exhibited high sensitivity and low detection limit for MDA-MB-231 cells with a quantitation range of just 186 cells. To sum up, this report developed a simple, specific and sensitive assay platform based on CD44FM nanozymes, which could provide a promising strategy for targeted diagnosis and screening of breast cancer.
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3
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Rastogi M, Saha RN, Alexander A, Singhvi G, Puri A, Dubey SK. Role of stealth lipids in nanomedicine-based drug carriers. Chem Phys Lipids 2021; 235:105036. [PMID: 33412151 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2020.105036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The domain of nanomedicine owns a wide-ranging variety of lipid-based drug carriers, and novel nanostructured drug carriersthat are further added to this range every year. The primary goal behind the exploration of any new lipid-based nanoformulation is the improvement of the therapeutic index of the concerned drug molecule along with minimization in the associated side-effects. However, for maintaining a sustained delivery of these intravenously injected lipoidal nanomedicines to the targeted tissues and organ systems in the body, longer circulation in the bloodstream, as well as their stability, are important. After administration, upon recognition as foreign entities in the body, these systems are rapidly cleared by the cells associated with the mononuclear phagocyte system. In order to provide these lipid-based systems with long circulation characteristics, techniques such as coating of the lipoidal surface with an inert polymeric material like polyethylene glycol (PEG) assists in imparting 'stealth properties' to these nanoformulations for avoiding recognition by the macrophages of the immune system. In this review, detailed importance is given to the hydrophilic PEG polymer and the role played by PEG-linked lipid polymers in the field of nanomedicine-based drug carriers. The typical structure and classification of stealth lipids, clinical utility, assemblage techniques, physicochemical characterization, and factors governing the in-vivo performance of the PEG-linked lipids containing formulations will be discussed. Eventually, the novel concept of accelerated blood clearance (ABC) phenomenon associated with the use of PEGylated therapeutics will be deliberated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehak Rastogi
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, 333031, India
| | - Ranendra Narayan Saha
- Department of Biotechnology, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Dubai Campus, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Amit Alexander
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology (Formulation), National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER-Guwahati), Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers, Govt. of India, Sila Katamur (Halugurisuk), Changsari, Kamrup, 781101, Guwahati, Assam, India.
| | - Gautam Singhvi
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, 333031, India
| | - Anu Puri
- RNA Structure and Design Section, RNA Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD, USA.
| | - Sunil Kumar Dubey
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Pilani Campus, Rajasthan, 333031, India; Emami Limited, R&D Healthcare Division, 13, BT Road, Kolkata, 700 056, West Bengal, India.
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4
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Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Song S, Yin L, Sun D, Gu J. Recent advances in the bioanalytical methods of polyethylene glycols and PEGylated pharmaceuticals. J Sep Sci 2020; 43:1978-1997. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201901340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Zhang
- Research Center for Drug Metabolism, College of Life ScienceJilin University Changchun P. R. China
- Beijing Institute of Drug Metabolism Beijing P. R. China
| | - Yuyao Zhang
- Research Center for Drug Metabolism, College of Life ScienceJilin University Changchun P. R. China
- Beijing Institute of Drug Metabolism Beijing P. R. China
| | - Shiwen Song
- Research Center for Drug Metabolism, College of Life ScienceJilin University Changchun P. R. China
- Beijing Institute of Drug Metabolism Beijing P. R. China
| | - Lei Yin
- Research Center for Drug Metabolism, College of Life ScienceJilin University Changchun P. R. China
- Research Institute of Translational MedicineThe First Bethune Hospital of Jilin University Changchun P. R. China
| | - Dong Sun
- Department of Biopharmacy, College of Life ScienceJilin University Changchun P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education”Yantai University Yantai P. R. China
| | - Jingkai Gu
- Research Center for Drug Metabolism, College of Life ScienceJilin University Changchun P. R. China
- Beijing Institute of Drug Metabolism Beijing P. R. China
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5
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Development of a highly sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) through use of poly-protein G-expressing cell-based microplates. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17868. [PMID: 30552393 PMCID: PMC6294806 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36192-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The sensitivity of traditional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) is limited by the low binding avidity and heterogeneous orientation of capture antibodies coated on polystyrene-based microplates. Here, we developed a highly sensitive ELISA strategy by fixing poly-protein G-expressing cells on microplates to improve the coating amount and displayed orientation of capture antibodies. One or eight repeated fragment crystallisable (Fc) binding domains of protein G are stably expressed on the surface of BALB/c 3T3 cells (termed 1pG cells or 8pG cells), which then act as highly antibody-trapping microparticles. The 8pG cells showed higher antibody-trapping ability than the 1pG cells did. The antibody-coating amount of the 8pG cell-based microplates was 1.5–23 times and 1.2–6.8 times higher than that of traditional polystyrene-based and commercial protein G-based microplates, respectively. The 8pG cell-based microplates were then applied to an anti-IFN-α sandwich ELISA and an anti-CTLA4 competitive ELISA, respectively, and dramatically enhanced their detection sensitivity. Importantly, direct coating unpurified capture antibody produced by mammalian cells did not impair the antigen-capturing function of 8pG cell-based microplates. The 8pG cell-based microplates exhibited a significant improvement in antibody-coating amount and preserved the homogeneous orientation of capture antibodies, making them a potential replacement for traditional microplates in various formats of ELISAs.
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6
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Su CY, Chen M, Chen LC, Ho YS, Ho HO, Lin SY, Chuang KH, Sheu MT. Bispecific antibodies (anti-mPEG/anti-HER2) for active tumor targeting of docetaxel (DTX)-loaded mPEGylated nanocarriers to enhance the chemotherapeutic efficacy of HER2-overexpressing tumors. Drug Deliv 2018; 25:1066-1079. [PMID: 29718725 PMCID: PMC6058516 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2018.1466936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Anti-mPEG/anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) bispecific antibodies (BsAbs) non-covalently bound to a docetaxel (DTX)-loaded mPEGylated lecithin-stabilized micellar drug delivery system (LsbMDDs) were endowed with active targetability to improve the chemotherapeutic efficacy of DTX. DTX-loaded mPEGylated LsbMDDs formulations were prepared using lecithin/DSPE-PEG(2K or 5K) nanosuspensions to hydrate the thin film, and then they were subjected to ultrasonication. Two BsAbs (anti-mPEG/anti-DNS or anti-HER2) were simply mixed with the LsbMDDs to form BsAbs-LsbMDDs formulations, respectively, referred as the DNS-LsbMDDs and HER2-LsbMDDs. Results demonstrated that the physical characteristics of the BsAbs-LsbMDDs were similar to those of the plain LsbMDDs but more slowly released DTX than that from the LsbMDDs. Results also showed that the HER2-LsbMDDs suppressed the growth of HER2-expressing MCF-7/HER2 tumors, increasing the amount taken up via an endocytosis pathway leading to high drug accumulation and longer retention in the tumor. In conclusion, the BsAbs-LsbMDDs preserved the physical properties of the LsbMDDs and actively targeted tumors with a drug cargo to enhance drug accumulation in tumors leading to greater antitumor activity against antigen-positive tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Yu Su
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Michael Chen
- Ph.D. Program in Clinical Drug Development of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ling-Chun Chen
- Department of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Technology, Yuanpei University of Medical Technology, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yuan-Soon Ho
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsiu-O Ho
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shyr-Yi Lin
- Department of Primary Care Medicine, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Department of General Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- TMU Research Center of Cancer Translational Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Kuo-Hsiang Chuang
- Ph.D. Program in Clinical Drug Development of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Graduate Institute of Pharmacognosy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ming-Thau Sheu
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
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7
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Castillo PM, Jimenez-Ruiz A, Carnerero JM, Prado-Gotor R. Exploring Factors for the Design of Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Vectors. Chemphyschem 2018; 19:2810-2828. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201800388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paula M. Castillo
- Physical Chemistry Department. Faculty of Chemistry; University of Seville; C/Prof. García González, s/n 41012 Sevilla Spain
| | - Aila Jimenez-Ruiz
- Physical Chemistry Department. Faculty of Chemistry; University of Seville; C/Prof. García González, s/n 41012 Sevilla Spain
| | - Jose M. Carnerero
- Physical Chemistry Department. Faculty of Chemistry; University of Seville; C/Prof. García González, s/n 41012 Sevilla Spain
| | - Rafael Prado-Gotor
- Physical Chemistry Department. Faculty of Chemistry; University of Seville; C/Prof. García González, s/n 41012 Sevilla Spain
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8
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Guo J, Zhao X, Hu J, Lin Y, Wang Q. Tobacco Mosaic Virus with Peroxidase-Like Activity for Cancer Cell Detection through Colorimetric Assay. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:2946-2953. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiawang Guo
- The State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, P. R. China
| | - Xia Zhao
- The State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
| | - Jun Hu
- The State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
| | - Yuan Lin
- The State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
| | - Qian Wang
- The State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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9
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Lin WW, Cheng YA, Kao CH, Roffler SR, Lee YC, Chen BM, Hsieh YC, Chen IJ, Huang BC, Wang YT, Tung YC, Huang MY, Chen FM, Cheng TL. Enhancement Effect of a Variable Topology of a Membrane-Tethered Anti-Poly(ethylene glycol) Antibody on the Sensitivity for Quantifying PEG and PEGylated Molecules. Anal Chem 2017; 89:6082-6090. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b00730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Wei Lin
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | | | | | - Steve R. Roffler
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Bing-Mae Chen
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | | | - Bo-Cheng Huang
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | | | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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10
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Zhou X, Meng X, Cheng L, Su C, Sun Y, Sun L, Tang Z, Fawcett JP, Yang Y, Gu J. Development and Application of an MSALL-Based Approach for the Quantitative Analysis of Linear Polyethylene Glycols in Rat Plasma by Liquid Chromatography Triple-Quadrupole/Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2017; 89:5193-5200. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotong Zhou
- School
of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, PR China
| | - Xiangjun Meng
- School
of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, PR China
| | - Longmei Cheng
- School
of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, PR China
| | - Chong Su
- School
of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, PR China
| | - Yantong Sun
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, PR China
| | - Lingxia Sun
- School
of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, PR China
| | - Zhaohui Tang
- Key
Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, PR China
| | - John Paul Fawcett
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Otago, Dunedin, P.O. Box 56, New Zealand
| | - Yan Yang
- School
of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, PR China
| | - Jingkai Gu
- School
of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, PR China
- Clinical
Pharmacology Center, Research Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130061, PR China
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11
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Hsieh YC, Cheng TC, Wang HE, Li JJ, Lin WW, Huang CC, Chuang CH, Wang YT, Wang JY, Roffler SR, Chuang KH, Cheng TL. Using anti-poly(ethylene glycol) bioparticles for the quantitation of PEGylated nanoparticles. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39119. [PMID: 27991598 PMCID: PMC5171718 DOI: 10.1038/srep39119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Attachment of polyethylene glycol (PEG) molecules to nanoparticles (PEGylation) is a widely-used method to improve the stability, biocompatibility and half-life of nanomedicines. However, the evaluation of the PEGylated nanomedicine pharmacokinetics (PK) requires the decomposition of particles and purification of lead compounds before analysis by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), mass spectrometry, etc. Therefore, a method to directly quantify un-decomposed PEGylated nanoparticles is needed. In this study, we developed anti-PEG bioparticles and combined them with anti-PEG antibodies to generate a quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for direct measurement of PEGylated nanoparticles without compound purification. The anti-PEG bioparticles quantitative ELISA directly quantify PEG-quantum dots (PEG-QD), PEG-stabilizing super-paramagnetic iron oxide (PEG-SPIO), Lipo-Dox and PEGASYS and the detection limits were 0.01 nM, 0.1 nM, 15.63 ng/mL and 0.48 ng/mL, respectively. Furthermore, this anti-PEG bioparticle-based ELISA tolerated samples containing up to 10% mouse or human serum. There was no significant difference in pharmacokinetic studies of radiolabeled PEG-nanoparticles (Nano-X-111In) through anti-PEG bioparticle-based ELISA and a traditional gamma counter. These results suggest that the anti-PEG bioparticle-based ELISA may provide a direct and effective method for the quantitation of any whole PEGylated nanoparticles without sample preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Chin Hsieh
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan first Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Ta-Chun Cheng
- Center for Biomarkers and Biotech Drugs, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan First Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Ell Wang
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Sciences and Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Je Li
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Sciences and Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Wei Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chiao Huang
- Center for Biomarkers and Biotech Drugs, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan First Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hung Chuang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan first Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Yeng-Tseng Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan First Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Jaw-Yuan Wang
- Center for Biomarkers and Biotech Drugs, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan First Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan.,Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan first Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Steve R Roffler
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsiang Chuang
- Graduate Institute of Pharmacognosy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.,Ph.D. Program for Clinical Drug Discovery from Botanical Herbs, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan first Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan.,Center for Biomarkers and Biotech Drugs, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan First Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100 Shih-Chuan First Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
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12
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Lin WW, Hsieh YC, Cheng YA, Chuang KH, Huang CC, Chuang CH, Chen IJ, Cheng KW, Lu YC, Cheng TC, Wang YT, Roffler SR, Cheng TL. Optimization of an Anti-poly(ethylene glycol) (anti-PEG) Cell-Based Capture System To Quantify PEG and PEGylated Molecules. Anal Chem 2016; 88:12371-12379. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Wei Lin
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | | | | | - Kuo-Hsiang Chuang
- Graduate
Institute of Pharmacognosy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | - Kai-Wen Cheng
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | - Steve R. Roffler
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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13
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Suk JS, Xu Q, Kim N, Hanes J, Ensign LM. PEGylation as a strategy for improving nanoparticle-based drug and gene delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016. [DOI: '10.1016/j.addr.2015.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2023]
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14
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PEGylation as a strategy for improving nanoparticle-based drug and gene delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 99:28-51. [PMID: 26456916 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2411] [Impact Index Per Article: 301.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Coating the surface of nanoparticles with polyethylene glycol (PEG), or "PEGylation", is a commonly used approach for improving the efficiency of drug and gene delivery to target cells and tissues. Building from the success of PEGylating proteins to improve systemic circulation time and decrease immunogenicity, the impact of PEG coatings on the fate of systemically administered nanoparticle formulations has, and continues to be, widely studied. PEG coatings on nanoparticles shield the surface from aggregation, opsonization, and phagocytosis, prolonging systemic circulation time. Here, we briefly describe the history of the development of PEGylated nanoparticle formulations for systemic administration, including how factors such as PEG molecular weight, PEG surface density, nanoparticle core properties, and repeated administration impact circulation time. A less frequently discussed topic, we then describe how PEG coatings on nanoparticles have also been utilized for overcoming various biological barriers to efficient drug and gene delivery associated with other modes of administration, ranging from gastrointestinal to ocular. Finally, we describe both methods for PEGylating nanoparticles and methods for characterizing PEG surface density, a key factor in the effectiveness of the PEG surface coating for improving drug and gene delivery.
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15
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Tung HY, Su YC, Chen BM, Burnouf PA, Huang WC, Chuang KH, Yan YT, Cheng TL, Roffler SR. Selective Delivery of PEGylated Compounds to Tumor Cells by Anti-PEG Hybrid Antibodies. Mol Cancer Ther 2015; 14:1317-26. [PMID: 25852063 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-15-0151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is attached to many peptides, proteins, liposomes, and nanoparticles to reduce their immunogenicity and improve their pharmacokinetic and therapeutic properties. Here, we describe hybrid antibodies that can selectively deliver PEGylated medicines, imaging agents, or nanomedicines to target cells. Human IgG1 hybrid antibodies αPEG:αHER2 and αPEG:αCD19 were shown by ELISA, FACS, and plasmon resonance to bind to both PEG and HER2 receptors on SK-BR-3 breast adenocarcinoma and BT-474 breast ductal carcinoma cells or CD19 receptors on Ramos and Raji Burkitt's lymphoma cells. In addition, αPEG:αHER2 specifically targeted PEGylated proteins, liposomes, and nanoparticles to SK-BR-3 cells that overexpressed HER2, but not to HER2-negative MCF-7 breast adenocarcinoma cells. Endocytosis of PEGylated nanoparticles into SK-BR-3 cells was induced specifically by the αPEG:αHER2 hybrid antibody, as observed by confocal imaging of the accumulation of Qdots inside SK-BR-3 cells. Treatment of HER2(+) SK-BR-3 and BT-474 cancer cells with αPEG:αHER2 and the clinically used chemotherapeutic agent PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin for 3 hours enhanced the in vitro effectiveness of PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin by over two orders of magnitude. Hybrid anti-PEG antibodies offer a versatile and simple method to deliver PEGylated compounds to cellular locations and can potentially enhance the therapeutic efficacy of PEGylated medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Yi Tung
- Taiwan International Graduate Program in Molecular Medicine, National Yang-Ming University and Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Cheng Su
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Bing-Mae Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pierre-Alain Burnouf
- Taiwan International Graduate Program in Molecular Medicine, National Yang-Ming University and Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chiao Huang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsiang Chuang
- Graduate Institute of Pharmacognosy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ting Yan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Faculty of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, MedicoGenomic Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Steve R Roffler
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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16
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Cheng TC, Chuang KH, Chen M, Wang HE, Tzou SC, Su YC, Chuang CH, Kao CH, Chen BM, Chang LS, Roffler SR, Cheng TL. Sensitivity of PEGylated interferon detection by anti-polyethylene glycol (PEG) antibodies depends on PEG length. Bioconjug Chem 2014; 24:1408-13. [PMID: 23837865 DOI: 10.1021/bc3006144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Attachment of poly(ethylene glycol) to proteins can mask immune epitopes to increase serum half-life, reduce immunogenicity, and enhance in vivo biological efficacy. However, PEGylation mediated epitope-masking may also limit sensitivity and accuracy of traditional ELISA. We previously described an anti-PEG-based sandwich ELISA for universal assay of PEGylated molecules. Here, we compared the quantitative assessment of PEGylated interferons by anti-PEG and traditional anti-interferon sandwich ELISA. The detection limits for PEG-Intron (12k-PEG) and Pegasys (40k-PEG) were 1.9 and 0.03 ng/mL for anti-PEG ELISA compared to 0.18 and 0.42 ng/mL for traditional anti-interferon sandwich ELISA. These results indicate that the anti-PEG sandwich ELISA was insensitive to PEGylation mediated epitope-masking and the sensitivity increased in proportion to the length of PEG. By contrast, PEG-masking interfered with detection by traditional anti-interferon sandwich ELISA. Human and mouse serum did not affect the sensitivity of anti-PEG ELISA but impeded traditional anti-interferon sandwich ELISA. The anti-PEG sandwich ELISA was comparable to anti-interferon sandwich ELISA and radioassay of 131I-Pegasys in pharmacokinetic studies in mice. The anti-PEG sandwich ELISA provides a sensitive, accurate, and convenient quantitative measurement of PEGylated protein drugs.
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17
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Yi X, Yuan D, Farr SA, Banks WA, Poon CD, Kabanov AV. Pluronic modified leptin with increased systemic circulation, brain uptake and efficacy for treatment of obesity. J Control Release 2014; 191:34-46. [PMID: 24881856 PMCID: PMC4197010 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Modification of hydrophilic proteins with amphiphilic block copolymers capable of crossing cell membranes is a new strategy to improve protein delivery to the brain. Leptin, a candidate for the treatment of epidemic obesity, has failed in part because of impairment in its transport across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that develops with obesity. We posit that modification of leptin with poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(propylene oxide)-b-poly(ethylene oxide), Pluronic P85 (P85) might permit this protein to penetrate the BBB independently of its transporter, thereby overcoming peripheral leptin resistance. Here we report that peripherally administered leptin-P85 conjugates exhibit biological activity by reducing food intake in mouse models of obesity (ob/ob, and diet-induced obese mouse). We further generated two new leptin-P85 conjugates: one, Lep(ss)-P85(L), containing one P85 chain and another, Lep(ss)-P85(H), containing multiple P85 chains. We report data on their purification, analytical characterization, peripheral and brain pharmacokinetics (PK). Lep(ss)-P85(L) crosses the BBB using the leptin transporter, and exhibits improved peripheral PK along with increased accumulation in the brain compared to unmodified leptin. Lep(ss)-P85(H) also has improved peripheral PK but in a striking difference to the first conjugate penetrates the BBB independently of the leptin transporter via a non-saturable mechanism. The results demonstrate that leptin analogs can be developed through chemical modification of the native leptin with P85 to overcome leptin resistance at the level of the BBB, thus improving the potential for the treatment of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Yi
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Dongfen Yuan
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Susan A Farr
- Research and Development, VA Medical Center and Division of Geriatrics, St. Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MI, USA
| | - William A Banks
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108, USA; Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98108, USA
| | - Chi-Duen Poon
- Research Computer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Alexander V Kabanov
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Faculty of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119899 Moscow, Russia.
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18
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Chuang KH, Hsieh YC, Chiang IS, Chuang CH, Kao CH, Cheng TC, Wang YT, Lin WW, Chen BM, Roffler SR, Huang MY, Cheng TL. High-throughput sorting of the highest producing cell via a transiently protein-anchored system. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102569. [PMID: 25036759 PMCID: PMC4103822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Developing a high-throughput method for the effecient selection of the highest producing cell is very important for the production of recombinant protein drugs. Here, we developed a novel transiently protein-anchored system coupled with fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) for the efficient selection of the highest producing cell. A furin cleavage peptide (RAKR) was used to join a human anti-epithelial growth factor antibody (αEGFR Ab) and the extracellular-transmembrane-cytosolic domains of the mouse B7-1 antigen (B7). The furin inhibitor can transiently switch secreted αEGFR Ab into a membrane-anchored form. After cell sorting, the level of membrane αEGFR Ab-RAKR-B7 is proportional to the amount of secreted αEGFR Ab in the medium. We further selected 23 αEGFR Ab expressing cells and demonstrated a high correlation (R2 = 0.9165) between the secretion level and surface expression levels of αEGFR Ab. These results suggested that the novel transiently protein-anchored system can easily and efficiently select the highest producing cells, reducing the cost for the production of biopharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuo-Hsiang Chuang
- Graduate Institute of Pharmacognosy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Ph.D. Program for Clinical Drug Discovery from Botanical Herbs, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Master Program for Clinical Pharmacogenomics and Pharmacoproteomics, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Chin Hsieh
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - I-Shiuan Chiang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hung Chuang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Han Kao
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ta-Chun Cheng
- Graduate Institute of Pharmacognosy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yeng-Tseng Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Wei Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Bing-Mae Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Steve R. Roffler
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Yii Huang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (MYH); (TLC)
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Cancer Center, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (MYH); (TLC)
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19
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Rabanel JM, Hildgen P, Banquy X. Assessment of PEG on polymeric particles surface, a key step in drug carrier translation. J Control Release 2014; 185:71-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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20
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Liu Q, De Felippis MR, Huang L. Method for characterization of PEGylated bioproducts in biological matrixes. Anal Chem 2013; 85:9630-7. [PMID: 24066974 DOI: 10.1021/ac401921z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
PEGylation of peptides and proteins has been widely used to enhance stability and reduce immunogenicity of biotherapeutics. Characterizing the degradation of these PEGylated products in biological fluids can yield essential information to support pharmacokinetic evaluations and provide clues about their in vivo properties useful for further molecular optimization. In this paper, we describe a novel and uncomplicated approach to characterize PEGylated peptides or proteins and their related degradation products in biological matrixes. The method involves direct liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) analysis of animal sera containing low nanograms to low micrograms per milliliter of PEGylated product with or without an acetonitrile precipitation sample treatment. Applying the methodology to analyze the model PEGylated peptides, 20K PEGylated-Pancreatic Polypeptide analogue (PPA) and 20K PEGylated-glucagon, we elucidated the decomposition pathways occurring in animal sera. The data provided direct evidence of cleavages within the peptide backbone. The identified degradation products were unambiguously confirmed by tandem mass spectrometry with high-energy C-trap dissociation (HCD) analysis, followed with in-source fragmentation. Additional spiking studies demonstrated nearly full recovery of PEGylated products, linear detection when the spiked concentration of PEGylated product was ≤1000 ng/mL, and a low ng/mL limit of quantitation (LOQ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyuan Liu
- Bioproduct Research & Development, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company , Lilly Corporate Center, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
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21
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Cheng TL, Chuang KH, Chen BM, Roffler SR. Analytical Measurement of PEGylated Molecules. Bioconjug Chem 2012; 23:881-99. [DOI: 10.1021/bc200478w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Lu Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Science
and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsiang Chuang
- Department of Biomedical Science
and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Bing-Mae Chen
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Steve R. Roffler
- Institute
of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
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22
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Li H, Rose MJ, Holder JR, Wright M, Miranda LP, James CA. Direct quantitative analysis of a 20 kDa PEGylated human calcitonin gene peptide antagonist in cynomolgus monkey serum using in-source CID and UPLC-MS/MS. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2011; 22:1660-1667. [PMID: 21953269 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-011-0180-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Revised: 04/25/2011] [Accepted: 05/23/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
PEGylation is a successful strategy to improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmaceutical properties of therapeutic peptides. However, quantitative analysis of PEGylated peptides in biomatrix by LC-MS/MS poses significant analytical challenge due to the polydispersity of the polyethylene glycol (PEG), and the multiple charge states observed for both the peptide and PEG moieties. In this report, a novel LC-MS/MS method for direct quantitative analysis of 20 kDa PEGylated CGRP[Cit, Cit] in cynomolgus monkey serum is presented. CGRP[Cit, Cit] is an investigational human calcitonin gene peptide receptor antagonist with amino acid sequence Ac -WVTH[Cit]LAGLLS[Cit]SGGVVRKNFVPT DVGPFAF-NH(2). In-source collision-induced dissociation (in-source CID) of 20 kDa PEGylated peptide was used to generate CGRP[Cit, Cit] fragment ions, among which the most abundant b(8)(+) ion was selected and measured as a surrogate for the 20 kDa PEGylated peptide. A solid phase extraction (SPE) method was used to extract the PEGylated peptides from the biomatrix prior to the UPLC-MS/MS analysis. This method achieved a lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) of 5.00 ng/mL with a serum sample volume of 100 μL, and was linear over the calibration range of 5.00 to 500 ng/mL in cynomolgus monkey serum. Intraday and interday accuracy and precision from QC samples were within ±15%. This method was successfully applied to a pharmacokinetic study of the 20 kDa PEGylated CGRP[Cit, Cit] in cynomolgus monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Li
- Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Amgen Inc., One Amgen Center Drive, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320, USA.
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