Label-free biomarker sensing in undiluted serum with suspended microchannel resonators

A Magnetic Levitation System for Range/Sensitivity-Tunable Measurement of Density

Magnetic levitation (MagLev) is a promising density-based analytical technique with numerous applications. Several MagLev structures with different levels of sensitivity and range have been studied. However, these MagLev structures can seldom satisfy the different performance requirements simultaneously, such as high sensitivity, wide measurement range, and easy operation, which have prevented them from being widely used. In this work, a tunable MagLev system was developed. It is confirmed by numerical simulation and experiments that this system possesses a high resolution down to 10^-7 g/cm³ or even higher compared to the existing systems. Meanwhile, the resolution and range of this tunable system can be adjusted to meet different requirements of measurement. More importantly, this system can be operated simply and conveniently. This bundle of characteristics demonstrates that the novel tunable MagLev system could be handily applied in various density-based analyses on demand, which would greatly expand the ability of MagLev technology.

Advanced density-based methods for the characterization of materials, binding events, and kinetics

Investigations of the densities of chemicals and materials bring valuable insights into the fundamental understanding of matter and processes. Recently, advanced density-based methods have been developed with wide measurement ranges (i.e. 0-23 g cm^-3), high resolutions (i.e. 10^-6 g cm^-3), compatibility with different types of samples and the requirement of extremely low volumes of sample (as low as a single cell). Certain methods, such as magnetic levitation, are inexpensive, portable and user-friendly. Advanced density-based methods are, therefore, beneficially used to obtain absolute density values, composition of mixtures, characteristics of binding events, and kinetics of chemical and biological processes. Herein, the principles and applications of magnetic levitation, acoustic levitation, electrodynamic balance, aqueous multiphase systems, and suspended microchannel resonators for materials science are discussed.

Biorecognition antifouling coatings in complex biological fluids: a review of functionalization aspects

Recent progress in biointerface research has highlighted the role of antifouling functionalizable coatings in the development of advanced biosensors for point-of-care bioanalytical and biomedical applications dealing with real-world complex samples. The resistance to nonspecific adsorption promotes the biorecognition performance and overall increases the reliability and specificity of the analysis. However, the process of modification with biorecognition elements (so-called functionalization) may influence the resulting antifouling properties. The extent of these effects concerning both functionalization procedures potentially changing the surface architecture and properties, and the physicochemical properties of anchored biorecognition elements, remains unclear and has not been summarized in the literature yet. This critical review summarizes these key functionalization aspects with respect to diverse antifouling architectures showing low or ultra-low fouling quantitative characteristics in complex biological media such as bodily fluids or raw food samples. The subsequent discussion focuses on the impact of functionalization on fouling resistance. Furthermore, this review discusses some of the drawbacks of available surface sensitive characterization methods and highlights the importance of suitable assessment of the resistance to fouling.

High Sensitivity Label-Free Quantitative Method for Detecting Tumor Biomarkers in Human Serum by Optical Microfiber Couplers

Label-free optical fiber immunosensors have attracted widespread attention in recent decades due to their high sensitivity. However, nonspecific adsorption in serum has remained a critical bottleneck in existing label-free fiber optic biosensors, which hinders their widespread use in diagnostics. In addition, individual differences in clinical human serum (HS) negatively impact biosensing results. In this work, the modified serum preadsorption strategy was applied to reduce nonspecific adsorption by forming a saturated antifouling interface on an optical microfiber coupler (OMC). Furthermore, to reduce the effect of the differences between individual HS samples, we proposed a new method where Sigma HS was used as a wavelength shift reference due to being close to clinical serum compared to other serums. Sigma HS was used first to reduce the differences in immune sensors before performing a clinical sample test in which quantitative detection was achieved based on the independent calibration of several sensors with wide dynamic ranges via dissociation processes. The individual differences in 25% HS were corrected by 30% Sigma HS. As a proof of concept, the label-free OMC immune sensor demonstrates good sensitivity and specificity for the detection of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) in 25% Sigma HS at different concentrations. The detection limit of CEA reached as low as 34.6 fg/mL (0.475 fM). Additionally, label-free quantitative detection of CEA using this OMC immune sensor was verified experimentally according to the calibration line, and the results agree well with clinical examination detection. To our knowledge, it is the first study to employ an OMC immune sensor in point-of-care label-free quantitative detection for clinical HS.

Fabricating Silicon Resonators for Analysing Biological Samples

The adaptability of microscale devices allows microtechnologies to be used for a wide range of applications. Biology and medicine are among those fields that, in recent decades, have applied microtechnologies to achieve new and improved functionality. However, despite their ability to achieve assay sensitivities that rival or exceed conventional standards, silicon-based microelectromechanical systems remain underutilised for biological and biomedical applications. Although microelectromechanical resonators and actuators do not always exhibit optimal performance in liquid due to electrical double layer formation and high damping, these issues have been solved with some innovative fabrication processes or alternative experimental approaches. This paper focuses on several examples of silicon-based resonating devices with a brief look at their fundamental sensing elements and key fabrication steps, as well as current and potential biological/biomedical applications.

Cellular and biomolecular detection based on suspended microchannel resonators

Suspended microchannel resonators (SMRs) have been developed to measure the buoyant mass of single micro-/nanoparticles and cells suspended in a liquid. They have significantly improved the mass resolution with the aid of vacuum packaging and also increased measurement throughput by fast resonance frequency tracking while target objects travel through the microchannel without stopping or even slowing down. Since their invention, various biological applications have been enabled, including simultaneous measurements of cell growth and cell cycle progression, and measurements of disease associated physicochemical change, to name a few. Extension and advancement towards other promising applications with SMRs are continuously ongoing by adding multiple functionalities or incorporating other complementary analytical metrologies. In this paper, we will thoroughly review the development history, basic and advanced operations, and key applications of SMRs to introduce them to researchers working in biological and biomedical sciences who mostly rely on classical and conventional methodologies. We will also provide future perspectives and projections for SMR technologies.

Label-free attomolar protein detection using a MEMS optical interferometric surface-stress immunosensor with a freestanding PMMA/parylene-C nanosheet

We demonstrated an optical interferometer-based surface-stress immunosensor using freestanding polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)/parylene-C nanosheet with high sensitivity for detection of biomolecules. PMMA/parylene-C nanosheets were transferred onto a silicon substrate with microcavities to fabricate freestanding submicron-thick membrane with a sealed cavity structure. The adhesive force between the transferred parylene-C and binder parylene-C layer was measured to be 1.06-2.4 N/10 mm by tape test. Evading Debye shielding, these nanomechanical sensors allow detection of the adsorption on the membrane surface through changes in surface stress transduced by the electric charge. We optimized the density of receptors and mode of immobilization for high sensitivity. To evaluate the selectivity of the sensor, membrane deflections induced by various proteins were measured and the spectral shifts showed high selectivity only for the target antigen. The minimum limit of detection (LOD) of the sensor for human serum albumin antigen was 0.1-1 fg/mL (1.5-15 aM), which was 20,000 times lower than that of the conventional micro-cantilever sensor.

Cationic micelle-based siRNA delivery for efficient colon cancer gene therapy

Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based gene therapy has provided an alternative strategy for cancer therapy. One of the key components within gene therapy process is the delivery system. As a novel non-viral gene vector, DMP, prepared by modifying mPEG-PCL micelle with cationic DOTAP lipid, has been prepared and successfully applied in plasmid DNA-based colon cancer gene therapy study. However, its potential in siRNA delivery is unknown. In this study, the preparation process of DMP was optimized and the anti-cancer efficacies of the DMP/siMcl1 and DMP/siBcl-xl complexes were studied on a mouse colon cancer model. Our results demonstrated that DMP cationic micelle-delivered siRNAs could effectively inhibit the growth of C26 colon cancer cells in vitro. Meanwhile, intratumoral administration of DMP/siMcl1 and DMP/siBcl-xl complexes obviously suppressed subcutaneous tumor model in vivo. These results suggest the DMP/siRNA complex to be a potential candidate for cancer gene therapy.

Recent advances in single-cell analysis by mass spectrometry

Cells are the most basic structural units that play vital roles in the functioning of living organisms. Analysis of the chemical composition and content of a single cell plays a vital role in ensuring precise investigations of cellular metabolism, and is a crucial aspect of lipidomic and proteomic studies. In addition, structural knowledge provides a better understanding of cell behavior as well as the cellular and subcellular mechanisms. However, single-cell analysis can be very challenging due to the very small size of each cell as well as the large variety and extremely low concentrations of substances found in individual cells. On account of its high sensitivity and selectivity, mass spectrometry holds great promise as an effective technique for single-cell analysis. Numerous mass spectrometric techniques have been developed to elucidate the molecular profiles at the cellular level, including electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), laser-based mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In this review, the recent advances in single-cell analysis by mass spectrometry are summarized. The strategies of different ionization modes to achieve single-cell analysis are classified and discussed in detail.

Surface Area Enhancement of Nanomechanical Disk Resonators Using MWCNT for Mass-Sensing Applications

This work presents fabrication of thermal-piezoresistive nanoelectromechanical silicon disk resonators and their characterization as highly sensitive mass sensors. Forest of multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) has been grown on the top surface of the fabricated devices, increasing the resonator effective surface area, which, in turn, increases the adsorption capacity and, therefore, the frequency shift of the sensor in molecular or particulate detection applications. To investigate the effect of the enhanced surface area on frequency shift, devices with and without MWCNTs were exposed to an aqueous solution of manganese sulfate for different deposition times and the resonance frequency shift was recorded accordingly. The measured frequency shift for the devices covered with MWCNTs was 14× higher than similar bare silicon devices. Furthermore, mass loading experiments were performed using gold nanoparticles as the loading mass. A novel way to attach gold nanoparticles on the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) wall was developed here. Oxygen plasma treatment introduced dangling bonds on the MWCNTs walls to facilitate the bonding between them and trimethoxysilane aldehyde molecules, forming the self-assembled monolayer (SAM). After functionalization of the device with SAM and antiinfluenza H1N1 viruses (AB), the device was exposed to a solution of Antimouse IgG (whole molecule)-gold antibody produced in goat products. The results showed more than three times response enhancement for the resonators with MWCNTs.

Nano-Integrated Suspended Polymeric Microfluidics (SPMF) Platform for Ultra-Sensitive Bio-Molecular Recognition of Bovine Growth Hormones

The development of sensitive platforms for the detection of biomolecules recognition is an extremely important problem in clinical diagnostics. In microcantilever (MC) transducers, surface-stress is induced upon bimolecular interaction which is translated into MC deflection. This paper presents a cost-effective and ultra-sensitive MC-based biosensing platform. To address these goals, the need for costly high-resolution read-out system has been eliminated by reducing the cantilever compliance through developing a polymer-based cantilever. Furthermore a microfluidic system has been integrated with the MC in order to enhance sensitivity and response time and to reduce analytes consumption. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are synthesized on the surface of suspended microfluidics as the selective layer for biomolecule immobilization. The biosensing results show significant improvement in the sensitivity of the proposed platform compared with available silicon MC biosensor. A detection limit of 2 ng/ml (100pM) is obtained for the detection of bovine growth hormones. The results validated successful application of suspended polymeric microfluidics (SPMF) as the next generation of biosensing platforms which could enable femtomolar (fM) biomolecular recognition detection.

Acoustic biosensors

Resonant and acoustic wave devices have been researched for several decades for application in the gravimetric sensing of a variety of biological and chemical analytes. These devices operate by coupling the measurand (e.g. analyte adsorption) as a modulation in the physical properties of the acoustic wave (e.g. resonant frequency, acoustic velocity, dissipation) that can then be correlated with the amount of adsorbed analyte. These devices can also be miniaturized with advantages in terms of cost, size and scalability, as well as potential additional features including integration with microfluidics and electronics, scaled sensitivities associated with smaller dimensions and higher operational frequencies, the ability to multiplex detection across arrays of hundreds of devices embedded in a single chip, increased throughput and the ability to interrogate a wider range of modes including within the same device. Additionally, device fabrication is often compatible with semiconductor volume batch manufacturing techniques enabling cost scalability and a high degree of precision and reproducibility in the manufacturing process. Integration with microfluidics handling also enables suitable sample pre-processing/separation/purification/amplification steps that could improve selectivity and the overall signal-to-noise ratio. Three device types are reviewed here: (i) bulk acoustic wave sensors, (ii) surface acoustic wave sensors, and (iii) micro/nano-electromechanical system (MEMS/NEMS) sensors.

Papain-functionalized gold nanoparticles as heterogeneous biocatalyst for bioanalysis and biopharmaceuticals analysis

Surface-modified gold nanoparticles (GNPs) were synthesized via layer-by-layer process with alternating cationic polyallylamine and anionic poly(acrylic acid) polyelectrolyte layers leading to a highly hydrophilic biocompatible shell supporting colloidal stability. Afterwards, papain was covalently immobilized on the modified GNPs via amide coupling between the amino groups on papain and the terminal carboxylic groups of the modified GNPs by using N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide and N-hydroxysulfosuccinimide sodium as coupling agents. The resultant papain-functionalized gold nanoparticles were characterized by surface plasmon resonance, dynamic light scattering and zeta potential measurements. The new technology resonant mass measurement was applied for determining the average number of papain molecules immobilized per GNP by measurement of the single nanoparticle buoyant mass in the range of femtograms. The activity of the immobilized enzyme was estimated by determination of the kinetic parameters (K_m, V_max and k_cat) with the standard chromogenic substrate N_α-benzoyl-dl-arginine-4-nitroanilide hydrochloride. It was found that K_m of immobilized and free enzyme are in the same order of magnitude. On contrary, turnover numbers k_cat were significantly higher for GNP-conjugated papain. Further, the gold nanobiocatalyst was applied for digestion of polyclonal human immunoglobulin G to yield protein fragments. The resultant fragment mixture was further analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-microelectrospray ionization-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, which demonstrated the applicability of the bioreactor based on papain functionalized GNPs. The immobilized papain not only has higher catalytic activity and better stability, but also can be easily isolated from the reaction medium by straightforward centrifugation steps for reuse.

NIR light-triggered expansive starch particles for use as artificial thrombi

The NIR light triggered expansion of starch particles to act as artificial thrombi, as well as for controllable drug release, is demonstrated.

Recent advances in biosensor development for the detection of cancer biomarkers

Cancer is the second largest disease throughout the world with an increasing mortality rate over the past few years. The patient's survival rate is uncertain due to the limitations of cancer diagnosis and therapy. Early diagnosis of cancer is decisive for its successful treatment. A biomarker-based cancer diagnosis may significantly improve the early diagnosis and subsequent treatment. Biosensors play a crucial role in the detection of biomarkers as they are easy to use, portable, and can do analysis in real time. This review describes various biosensors designed for detecting nucleic acid and protein-based cancer biomarkers for cancer diagnosis. It mainly lays emphasis on different approaches to use electrochemical, optical, and mass-based transduction systems in cancer biomarker detection. It also highlights the analytical performances of various biosensor designs concerning cancer biomarkers in detail.

Ultra-low fouling and high antibody loading zwitterionic hydrogel coatings for sensing and detection in complex media

For surface-based diagnostic devices to achieve reliable biomarker detection in complex media such as blood, preventing nonspecific protein adsorption and incorporating high loading of biorecognition elements are paramount. In this work, a novel method to produce nonfouling zwitterionic hydrogel coatings was developed to achieve these goals. Poly(carboxybetaine acrylamide) (pCBAA) hydrogel thin films (CBHTFs) prepared with a carboxybetaine diacrylamide crosslinker (CBAAX) were coated on gold and silicon dioxide surfaces via a simple spin coating process. The thickness of CBHTFs could be precisely controlled between 15 and 150nm by varying the crosslinker concentration, and the films demonstrated excellent long-term stability. Protein adsorption from undiluted human blood serum onto the CBHTFs was measured with surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Hydrogel thin films greater than 20nm exhibited ultra-low fouling (<5ng/cm(2)). In addition, the CBHTFs were capable of high antibody functionalization for specific biomarker detection without compromising their nonfouling performance. This strategy provides a facile method to modify SPR biosensor chips with an advanced nonfouling material, and can be potentially expanded to a variety of implantable medical devices and diagnostic biosensors.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

In this work, we developed an approach to realize ultra-low fouling and high ligand loading with a highly-crosslinked, purely zwitterionic, carboxybetaine thin film hydrogel (CBHTF) coating platform. The CBHTF on a hydrophilic surface demonstrated long-term stability. By varying the crosslinker content in the spin-coated hydrogel solution, the thickness of CBHTFs could be precisely controlled. Optimized CBHTFs exhibited ultra-low nonspecific protein adsorption below 5ng/cm(2) measured by a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor, and their 3D architecture allowed antibody loading to reach 693ng/cm(2). This strategy provides a facile method to modify SPR biosensor chips with an advanced nonfouling material, and can be potentially expanded to a variety of implantable medical devices and diagnostic biosensors.

Physicochemical properties of polymers: An important system to overcome the cell barriers in gene transfection

Delivery of the macromolecules including DNA, miRNA, and antisense oligonucleotides is typically mediated by carriers due to the large size and negative charge. Different physical (e.g., gene gun or electroporation), and chemical (e.g., cationic polymer or lipid) vectors have been already used to improve the efficiency of gene transfer. Polymer-based DNA delivery systems have attracted special interest, in particular via intravenous injection with many intra- and extracellular barriers. The recent progress has shown that stimuli-responsive polymers entitled as multifunctional nucleic acid vehicles can act to target specific cells. These nonviral carriers are classified by the type of stimulus including reduction potential, pH, and temperature. Generally, the physicochemical characterization of DNA-polymer complexes is critical to enhance the transfection potency via protection of DNA from nuclease digestion, endosomal escape, and nuclear localization. The successful clinical applications will depend on an exact insight of barriers in gene delivery and development of carriers overcoming these barriers. Consequently, improvement of novel cationic polymers with low toxicity and effective for biomedical use has attracted a great attention in gene therapy. This article summarizes the main physicochemical and biological properties of polyplexes describing their gene transfection behavior, in vitro and in vivo. In this line, the relative efficiencies of various cationic polymers are compared.

Clinical proteomics-driven precision medicine for targeted cancer therapy: current overview and future perspectives

Cancer is a common disease that is a leading cause of death worldwide. Currently, early detection and novel therapeutic strategies are urgently needed for more effective management of cancer. Importantly, protein profiling using clinical proteomic strategies, with spectacular sensitivity and precision, offer excellent promise for the identification of potential biomarkers that would direct the development of targeted therapeutic anticancer drugs for precision medicine. In particular, clinical sample sources, including tumor tissues and body fluids (blood, feces, urine and saliva), have been widely investigated using modern high-throughput mass spectrometry-based proteomic approaches combined with bioinformatic analysis, to pursue the possibilities of precision medicine for targeted cancer therapy. Discussed in this review are the current advantages and limitations of clinical proteomics, the available strategies of clinical proteomics for the management of precision medicine, as well as the challenges and future perspectives of clinical proteomics-driven precision medicine for targeted cancer therapy.

Tunable micro- and nanomechanical resonators

Advances in micro- and nanofabrication technologies have enabled the development of novel micro- and nanomechanical resonators which have attracted significant attention due to their fascinating physical properties and growing potential applications. In this review, we have presented a brief overview of the resonance behavior and frequency tuning principles by varying either the mass or the stiffness of resonators. The progress in micro- and nanomechanical resonators using the tuning electrode, tuning fork, and suspended channel structures and made of graphene have been reviewed. We have also highlighted some major influencing factors such as large-amplitude effect, surface effect and fluid effect on the performances of resonators. More specifically, we have addressed the effects of axial stress/strain, residual surface stress and adsorption-induced surface stress on the sensing and detection applications and discussed the current challenges. We have significantly focused on the active and passive frequency tuning methods and techniques for micro- and nanomechanical resonator applications. On one hand, we have comprehensively evaluated the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy, including active methods such as electrothermal, electrostatic, piezoelectrical, dielectric, magnetomotive, photothermal, mode-coupling as well as tension-based tuning mechanisms, and passive techniques such as post-fabrication and post-packaging tuning processes. On the other hand, the tuning capability and challenges to integrate reliable and customizable frequency tuning methods have been addressed. We have additionally concluded with a discussion of important future directions for further tunable micro- and nanomechanical resonators.

Carboxybetaine Modified Interface for Electrochemical Glycoprofiling of Antibodies Isolated from Human Serum

Impedimetric lectin biosensors capable of recognizing two different carbohydrates (galactose and sialic acid) in glycans attached to antibodies isolated from human serum were prepared. The first step entailed the modification of a gold surface by a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) deposited from a solution containing a carboxybetaine-terminated thiol applied to the subsequent covalent immobilization of lectins and to resist nonspecific protein adsorption. In the next step, Sambucus nigra agglutinin (SNA) or Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA) was covalently attached to the SAM, and the whole process of building a bioreceptive layer was optimized and characterized using a diverse range of techniques including electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, quartz crystal microbalance, contact angle measurements, zeta-potential assays, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy. In addition, the application of the SNA-based lectin biosensor in the glycoprofiling of antibodies isolated from the human sera of healthy individuals and of patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) was successfully validated using an SNA-based lectin microarray. The results showed that the SNA lectin, in particular, is capable of discriminating between the antibodies isolated from healthy individuals and those from RA patients based on changes in the amount of sialic acid present in the antibodies. In addition, the results obtained by the application of RCA and SNA biosensors indicate that the abundance of galactose and sialic acid in antibodies isolated from healthy individuals is age-related.

A survey of state-of-the-art surface chemistries to minimize fouling from human and animal biofluids

Fouling of artificial surfaces by biofluids is a plague Biotechnology deeply suffers from. Herein, we inventory the state-of-the-art surface chemistries developed to minimize this effect from both human and animal biosamples.

Chemical engineering of self-assembled Alzheimer's peptide on a silanized silicon surface

The aim of this work is to develop a sensitive and specific immune-sensing platform dedicated to the detection of potential biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in biological fluids. Accordingly, a controlled and adaptive surface functionalization of a silicon wafer with 7-octenyltrichlorosilane has been performed. The surface has extensively been characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM; morphology) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS; chemical composition) and contact angle measurements. The wettability of the grafted chemical groups demonstrated the gradual trend from hydrophilic to hydrophobic surface during functionalization. XPS evidenced the presence of silanes on the surface after silanization, and even carboxylic groups as products from the oxidation step of the functionalization process. The characterization results permitted us to define an optimal protocol to reach a high-quality grafting yield. The issue of the quality of controlled chemical preparation on bioreceiving surfaces was also investigated by the recognition of one AD biomarker, the amyloid peptide Aβ 1-42. We have therefore evaluated the biological activity of the grafted anti Aβ antibodies onto this silanized surface by fluorescent microscopy. In conclusion, we have shown, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the uniformity of the optimized functionalization on slightly oxidized silicon surfaces, providing a reliable and chemically stable procedure to determine specific biomarkers of Alzheimer disease. This work opens the route to the integration of controlled immune-sensing applications on lab-on-chip systems.

Nanomechanical identification of liquid reagents in a microfluidic channel

Integration of promising technologies that can enhance sensitivity, selectivity, and throughput into micro total analysis systems (μTAS) are important in making them useful in precise screening of reaction byproducts in analytical chemistry, cellular biology and pharmaceutical industries. But unfortunately so far a method to precisely determine molecular signatures of reagents is missing in μTAS. We have developed a technique whereby molecular signatures of 50 pL of liquid reagents confined within a bimetallic microchannel cantilever can be obtained. This is achieved using wavelength dependent mechanical bending of the cantilever under infrared (IR) radiation. This technique also allows simultaneous physical characterization of the liquid reagent using variations in resonance frequency. It is useful in lab-on-a-chip devices and has a myriad of applications in drug screening, bioreactor monitoring, and petrochemical analysis.

Hybrid integrated label-free chemical and biological sensors

Label-free sensors based on electrical, mechanical and optical transduction methods have potential applications in numerous areas of society, ranging from healthcare to environmental monitoring. Initial research in the field focused on the development and optimization of various sensor platforms fabricated from a single material system, such as fiber-based optical sensors and silicon nanowire-based electrical sensors. However, more recent research efforts have explored designing sensors fabricated from multiple materials. For example, synthetic materials and/or biomaterials can also be added to the sensor to improve its response toward analytes of interest. By leveraging the properties of the different material systems, these hybrid sensing devices can have significantly improved performance over their single-material counterparts (better sensitivity, specificity, signal to noise, and/or detection limits). This review will briefly discuss some of the methods for creating these multi-material sensor platforms and the advances enabled by this design approach.

Actively transporting virus like analytes with optofluidics for rapid and ultrasensitive biodetection

Effective analyte delivery is essential to achieve rapid and sensitive biodetection systems. In this article, we present an actively controlled fluidic system integrated with a suspended plasmonic nanohole sensor to achieve superior analyte delivery efficiency and ultrafast sensor response, as compared to conventional fluidic systems. 70 nm sized virus like analyte solution is used to experimentally demonstrate the system performance improvements. Sensor response time is reduced by one order of magnitude as compared to the conventional methods. A seven orders of magnitude dynamic concentration range from 10(3) to 10(9) particles mL(-1) is quantified, corresponding to a concentration window relevant to clinical diagnosis and drug screening. Our non-destructive detection system, by enabling efficient analyte delivery, fast sensing response and minimal sample volume, opens up opportunities for sensitive, rapid and real-time virus detection in infectious disease control and point-of-care applications.

Nanomechanics of drug-target interactions and antibacterial resistance detection

The cantilever sensor, which acts as a transducer of reactions between model bacterial cell wall matrix immobilized on its surface and antibiotic drugs in solution, has shown considerable potential in biochemical sensing applications with unprecedented sensitivity and specificity^1-5. The drug-target interactions generate surface stress, causing the cantilever to bend, and the signal can be analyzed optically when it is illuminated by a laser. The change in surface stress measured with nano-scale precision allows disruptions of the biomechanics of model bacterial cell wall targets to be tracked in real time. Despite offering considerable advantages, multiple cantilever sensor arrays have never been applied in quantifying drug-target binding interactions.

Here, we report on the use of silicon multiple cantilever arrays coated with alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers mimicking bacterial cell wall matrix to quantitatively study antibiotic binding interactions. To understand the impact of vancomycin on the mechanics of bacterial cell wall structures^1,6,7. We developed a new model¹ which proposes that cantilever bending can be described by two independent factors; i) namely a chemical factor, which is given by a classical Langmuir adsorption isotherm, from which we calculate the thermodynamic equilibrium dissociation constant (K_d) and ii) a geometrical factor, essentially a measure of how bacterial peptide receptors are distributed on the cantilever surface. The surface distribution of peptide receptors (p) is used to investigate the dependence of geometry and ligand loading. It is shown that a threshold value of p ~10% is critical to sensing applications. Below which there is no detectable bending signal while above this value, the bending signal increases almost linearly, revealing that stress is a product of a local chemical binding factor and a geometrical factor combined by the mechanical connectivity of reacted regions and provides a new paradigm for design of powerful agents to combat superbug infections.

Reagents in microfluidics: an 'in' and 'out' challenge

Microfluidic devices are excellent at downscaling chemical and biochemical reactions and thereby can make reactions faster, better and more efficient. It is therefore understandable that we are seeing these devices being developed and used for many applications and research areas. However, microfluidic devices are more complex than test tubes or microtitre plates and the integration of reagents into them is a real challenge. This review looks at state-of-the-art methods and strategies for integrating various classes of reagents inside microfluidics and similarly surveys how reagents can be released inside microfluidics. The number of methods used for integrating and releasing reagents is surprisingly large and involves reagents in dry and liquid forms, directly-integrated reagents or reagents linked to carriers, as well as active, passive and hybrid release methods. We also made a brief excursion into the field of drug release and delivery. With this review, we hope to provide a large number of examples of integrating and releasing reagents that can be used by developers and users of microfluidics for their specific needs.

Biosensors in the small scale: methods and technology trends

This study presents a review on biosensors with an emphasis on recent developments in the field. A brief history accompanied by a detailed description of the biosensor concepts is followed by rising trends observed in contemporary micro- and nanoscale biosensors. Performance metrics to quantify and compare different detection mechanisms are presented. A comprehensive analysis on various types and subtypes of biosensors are given. The fields of interest within the scope of this review are label-free electrical, mechanical and optical biosensors as well as other emerging and popular technologies. Especially, the latter half of the last decade is reviewed for the types, methods and results of the most prominently researched detection mechanisms. Tables are provided for comparison of various competing technologies in the literature. The conclusion part summarises the noteworthy advantages and disadvantages of all biosensors reviewed in this study. Furthermore, future directions that the micro- and nanoscale biosensing technologies are expected to take are provided along with the immediate outlook.

Selective detection of sub-atto-molar Streptavidin in 10(13)-fold impure sample using photonic crystal nanolaser sensors

Biosensors selectively detecting a very small amount of biomarker protein in human blood are desired for early and reliable diagnoses of severe diseases. This paper reports the detection of protein (streptavidin: SA) in ultra-low concentration, with an ultra-high selectivity against contaminants, using photonic crystal nanolasers. For biotin-modified nanolasers in pure water with SA, an extremely-low detection limit of 16 zM is evaluated. Even in a mixture with 1 μM bovine serum albumin as the contaminant, 100 zM SA is detected, meaning a selectivity of 10(13). These are remarkable capabilities that are promising for practical biosensing in the medical applications mentioned above.

A self-sensing piezoelectric microcantilever biosensor for detection of ultrasmall adsorbed masses: theory and experiments

Detection of ultrasmall masses such as proteins and pathogens has been made possible as a result of advancements in nanotechnology. Development of label-free and highly sensitive biosensors has enabled the transduction of molecular recognition into detectable physical quantities. Microcantilever (MC)-based systems have played a widespread role in developing such biosensors. One of the most important drawbacks of all of the available biosensors is that they all come at a very high cost. Moreover, there are certain limitations in the measurement equipments attached to the biosensors which are mostly optical measurement systems. A unique self-sensing detection technique is proposed in this paper in order to address most of the limitations of the current measurement systems. A self-sensing bridge is used to excite piezoelectric MC-based sensor functioning in dynamic mode, which simultaneously measures the system's response through the self-induced voltage generated in the piezoelectric material. As a result, the need for bulky, expensive read-out equipment is eliminated. A comprehensive mathematical model is presented for the proposed self-sensing detection platform using distributed-parameters system modeling. An adaptation strategy is then implemented in the second part in order to compensate for the time-variation of piezoelectric properties which dynamically improves the behavior of the system. Finally, results are reported from an extensive experimental investigation carried out to prove the capability of the proposed platform. Experimental results verified the proposed mathematical modeling presented in the first part of the study with accuracy of 97.48%. Implementing the adaptation strategy increased the accuracy to 99.82%. These results proved the measurement capability of the proposed self-sensing strategy. It enables development of a cost-effective, sensitive and miniaturized mass sensing platform.

Microfluidic chips for immunoassays

The use of microfluidic chips for immunoassays has been extensively explored in recent years. The combination of immunoassays and microfluidics affords a promising platform for multiple, sensitive, and automatic point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. In this review, we focus on the description of recent achievements in microfluidic chips for immunoassays categorized by their detection method. Following a brief introduction to the basic principles of each detection method, we examine current microfluidic immunosensor detection systems in detail. We also highlight interesting strategies for sensitive immunosensing configurations, multiplexed analysis, and POC diagnostics in microfluidic immunosensors.

Multiplexed colorimetric detection of Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus and Bartonella DNA using gold and silver nanoparticles

Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is an infectious cancer occurring most commonly in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive patients and in endemic regions, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where KS is among the top four most prevalent cancers. The cause of KS is the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV, also called HHV-8), an oncogenic herpesvirus that while routinely diagnosed in developed nations, provides challenges to developing world medical providers and point-of-care detection. A major challenge in the diagnosis of KS is the existence of a number of other diseases with similar clinical presentation and histopathological features, requiring the detection of KSHV in a biopsy sample. In this work we develop an answer to this challenge by creating a multiplexed one-pot detection system for KSHV DNA and DNA from a frequently confounding disease, bacillary angiomatosis. Gold and silver nanoparticle aggregation reactions are tuned for each target and a multi-color change system is developed capable of detecting both targets down to levels between 1 nM and 2 nM. The system developed here could later be integrated with microfluidic sample processing to create a final device capable of solving the two major challenges in point-of-care KS detection.

Applications of microfluidics for molecular diagnostics

Diagnostic assays implemented in microfluidic devices have developed rapidly over the past decade and are expected to become commonplace in the next few years. Hundreds of microfluidics-based approaches towards clinical diagnostics and pathogen detection have been reported with a general theme of rapid and customizable assays that are potentially cost-effective. This chapter reviews microfluidics in molecular diagnostics based on application areas with a concise review of microfluidics in general. Basic principles of microfabrication are briefly reviewed and the transition to polymer fabricated devices is discussed. Most current microfluidic diagnostic devices are designed to target a single disease, such as a given cancer or a variety of pathogens, and there will likely be a large market for these focused devices; however, the future of molecular diagnostics lies in highly multiplexed microfluidic devices that can screen for potentially hundreds of diseases simultaneously.

Zwitterionic polymer-modified silicon microring resonators for label-free biosensing in undiluted human plasma

A widely acknowledged goal in personalized medicine is to radically reduce the costs of highly parallelized, small fluid volume, point-of-care and home-based diagnostics. Recently, there has been a surge of interest in using complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible silicon photonic circuits for biosensing, with the promise of producing chip-scale integrated devices containing thousands of orthogonal sensors, at minimal cost on a per-chip basis. A central challenge in biosensor translation is to engineer devices that are both sensitive and specific to a target analyte within unprocessed biological fluids. Despite advances in the sensitivity of silicon photonic biosensors, poor biological specificity at the sensor surface remains a significant factor limiting assay performance in complex media (i.e. whole blood, plasma, serum) due to the non-specific adsorption of proteins and other biomolecules. Here, we chemically modify the surface of silicon microring resonator biosensors for the label-free detection of an analyte in undiluted human plasma. This work highlights the first application of a non-fouling zwitterionic surface coating to enable silicon photonic-based label-free detection of a protein analyte at clinically relevant sensitivities in undiluted human plasma.

Highly sensitive diagnostic assay for the detection of protein biomarkers using microresonators and multifunctional nanoparticles

We developed a novel gravimetric immunoassay for sensitive detection of multiple protein biomarkers using silicon microcantilever arrays and multifunctional hybrid nanoparticles. Magnetic-photocatalytic hybrid nanoparticles with a highly crystalline TiO(2) shell were synthesized using a solvothermal reaction without a calcination process. After functionalizing the hybrid nanoparticles and silicon cantilevers with antibodies, the nanoparticles were used to magnetically separate target biomarkers from human serum. Frequency changes of the microcantilevers due to the binding of the nanoparticles were measured using a dip-and-dry method. Frequency changes were further amplified using a photocatalytic silver reduction reaction. Several biomarkers, including interleukin-6, interferon-γ, and alpha-fetoprotein, were selectively detected using arrays of eight silicon microcantilevers. The detection limit of this assay was ∼0.1 pg/mL, which is superior to the clinical threshold of the biomarkers.

High-sensitivity nanosensors for biomarker detection

High sensitivity nanosensors utilize optical, mechanical, electrical, and magnetic relaxation properties to push detection limits of biomarkers below previously possible concentrations. The unique properties of nanomaterials and nanotechnology are exploited to design biomarker diagnostics. High-sensitivity recognition is achieved by signal and target amplification along with thorough pre-processing of samples. In this tutorial review, we introduce the type of detection signals read by nanosensors to detect extremely small concentrations of biomarkers and provide distinctive examples of high-sensitivity sensors. The use of such high-sensitivity nanosensors can offer earlier detection of disease than currently available to patients and create significant improvements in clinical outcomes.

Microcantilevers and organic transistors: two promising classes of label-free biosensing devices which can be integrated in electronic circuits

Most of the success of electronic devices fabricated to actively interact with a biological environment relies on the proper choice of materials and efficient engineering of surfaces and interfaces. Organic materials have proved to be among the best candidates for this aim owing to many properties, such as the synthesis tunability, processing, softness and self-assembling ability, which allow them to form surfaces that are compatible with biological tissues. This review reports some research results obtained in the development of devices which exploit organic materials' properties in order to detect biologically significant molecules as well as to trigger/capture signals from the biological environment. Among the many investigated sensing devices, organic field-effect transistors (OFETs), organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) and microcantilevers (MCLs) have been chosen. The main factors motivating this choice are their label-free detection approach, which is particularly important when addressing complex biological processes, as well as the possibility to integrate them in an electronic circuit. Particular attention is paid to the design and realization of biocompatible surfaces which can be employed in the recognition of pertinent molecules as well as to the research of new materials, both natural and inspired by nature, as a first approach to environmentally friendly electronics.

High-resolution cantilever biosensor resonating at air-liquid in a microchannel

We have developed a highly mass-sensitive cantilever resonating at the interface of air and liquid. The cantilever is applicable as a biosensor by measuring its resonance frequency shift associated with the selective trapping of target molecules. One surface of the cantilever facing to the liquid is functionalized for label-free detection, while the opposite side is exposed to air to improve the resonance characteristics, such as the quality factor. The quality factor at resonance is 15, which is 50% higher than the same cantilever in liquid. The beam was excited through the photothermal effect of a power modulated laser and detected by laser Doppler velocimetry. Due to the proposed configuration, the signal-to-noise-ratio is 5.7 times larger than the completely submerged case. A micro-slit around the cantilever separates the air and liquid phases at a meniscus. We analyzed the cantilever motion including the meniscus membrane, and examined the effect of surface tension by applying various solutions. A slit width of 6 μm was found to give the best performance within the few prototypes. We measured the covalent immobilization of antibody molecules on a cantilever surface for three different concentrations: 20, 40, and 80 μg ml(-1). The kinetics measured by both resonance frequency shift of the cantilever and fluorescent intensity showed good agreement.

Biosensing using dynamic-mode cantilever sensors: a review

Current progress on the use of dynamic-mode cantilever sensors for biosensing applications is critically reviewed. We summarize their use in biosensing applications to date with focus given to: cantilever size (milli-, micro-, and nano-cantilevers), their geometry, and material used in fabrication. The review also addresses techniques investigated for both exciting and measuring cantilever resonance in various environments (vacuum, air, and liquid). Biological targets that have been detected to date are summarized with attention to bio-recognition chemistry, surface functionalization method, limit of detection, resonant frequency mode type, and resonant frequency measurement scheme. Applications published to date are summarized in a comprehensive table with description of the aforementioned details including comparison of sensitivities. Further, the general theory of cantilever resonance is discussed including fluid-structure interaction and its dependence on the Reynolds number for Newtonian fluids. The review covers designs with frequencies ranging from ∼1 kHz to 10 MHz and cantilever size ranging from millimeters to nanometers. We conclude by identifying areas that require further investigation.

Fast detection of biomolecules in diffusion-limited regime using micromechanical pillars

We have developed a micromechanical sensor based on vertically oriented oscillating beams, in which contrary to what is normally done (for example with oscillating cantilevers) the sensitive area is located at the free end of the oscillator. In the micropillar geometry used here, analyte adsorption is confined only to the tip of the micropillar, thus reducing the volume from which the analyte molecules must diffuse to saturate the surface to a sphere of radius more than 2 orders of magnitude smaller than the corresponding linear distance valid for adsorption on a macroscopic surface. Hence the absorption rate is 3 orders of magnitude faster than on a typical 200 × 20 square micrometer cantilever. Pillar oscillations are detected by means of an optical lever method, but the geometry is suitable for multiplexing with compact integrated detection. We demonstrate our technology by investigating the formation of a single-strand DNA self-assembled monolayer (SAM) consisting of less than 10(6) DNA molecules and by measuring their hybridization efficiency. We show that the binding rate is 1000 times faster than on a "macroscopic" surface. We also show that the hybridization of a SAM of maximum density DNA is 40% or 4 times the value reported in the literature. These results suggest that the lower values previously reported in the literature can be attributed to incomplete saturation of the surface due to the slower adsorption rate on the "macroscopic" surfaces used.