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Bocian S, Dembek M, Kalisz O. Exploring the green frontier: Subcritical water chromatography for sustainable analytical practices. J Sep Sci 2024; 47:e2300873. [PMID: 38801758 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202300873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Water in the subcritical state is characterized by properties significantly different from water under standard conditions. These include low viscosity, low surface tension, and a much lower dielectric constant, increasing the solubility of nonpolar substances. For this reason, it can provide an alternative solvent and be used in chromatographic techniques-subcritical water chromatography (SBWC). SBWC appears to be one of the greenest analytical techniques until we unravel chromatography with pure water at room temperature. The versatility of SBWC is explored through its applications in the separation and analysis of a wide range of compounds, including pharmaceuticals, natural products, etc. The use of subcritical water as a mobile phase requires suitable stable stationary phases and special apparatus. Still, it makes it possible to conduct analyses without using organic solvents. When using this technique, it is important to remember that it suits the analysis of thermally stable substances. The following work is a critical review of developments in SBWC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Bocian
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland
| | - Mikołaj Dembek
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland
| | - Oktawia Kalisz
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland
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Stationary Phases for Green Liquid Chromatography. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15020419. [PMID: 35057141 PMCID: PMC8778826 DOI: 10.3390/ma15020419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Industrial research, including pharmaceutical research, is increasingly using liquid chromatography techniques. This involves the production of large quantities of hazardous and toxic organic waste. Therefore, it is essential at this point to focus interest on solutions proposed by so-called “green chemistry”. One such solution is the search for new methods or the use of new materials that will reduce waste. One of the most promising ideas is to perform chromatographic separation using pure water, without organic solvents, as a mobile phase. Such an approach requires novel stationary phases or specific chromatographic conditions, such as an elevated separation temperature. The following review paper aims to gather information on stationary phases used for separation under purely aqueous conditions at various temperatures.
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Taborsky P, Kucera J, Jurica J, Pes O. Heavy water enhancement of fluorescence signal in reversed-phase liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2018; 1092:7-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Borisova DR, Statkus MA, Tsizin GI, Zolotov YA. Subcritical water: Use in chemical analysis. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934817080044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Subcritical Water as a Green Solvent for Plant Extraction. ALTERNATIVE SOLVENTS FOR NATURAL PRODUCTS EXTRACTION 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-43628-8_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Wiese S, Teutenberg T, Schmidt TC. A general strategy for performing temperature-programming in high performance liquid chromatography—Further improvements in the accuracy of retention time predictions of segmented temperature gradients. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1222:71-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Revised: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Wiese S, Teutenberg T, Schmidt TC. A general strategy for performing temperature-programming in high performance liquid chromatography—Prediction of segmented temperature gradients. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:6898-906. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2011] [Revised: 08/02/2011] [Accepted: 08/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Wiese S, Teutenberg T, Schmidt TC. General Strategy for Performing Temperature Programming in High Performance Liquid Chromatography: Prediction of Linear Temperature Gradients. Anal Chem 2011; 83:2227-33. [DOI: 10.1021/ac103113m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Wiese
- Institut für Energie-und Umwelttechnik e. V., Bliersheimer Strasse 60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Thorsten Teutenberg
- Institut für Energie-und Umwelttechnik e. V., Bliersheimer Strasse 60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Torsten C. Schmidt
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
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Carr AG, Branch A, Mammucari R, Foster NR. The solubility and solubility modelling of budesonide in pure and modified subcritical water solutions. J Supercrit Fluids 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Huang G, Smith RM, Albishri HM, Lin JM. Thermal Stability of Thiazide and Related Diuretics During Superheated Water Chromatography. Chromatographia 2010. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-010-1789-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Terol A, Paredes E, Maestre SE, Prats S, Todolí JL. High-Temperature Liquid Chromatography Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry hyphenation for the combined organic and inorganic analysis of foodstuffs. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:6195-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.07.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 07/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Carr AG, Mammucari R, Foster NR. Solubility and Micronization of Griseofulvin in Subcritical Water. Ind Eng Chem Res 2010. [DOI: 10.1021/ie901189r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam G. Carr
- Supercritical Fluids Research group, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Raffaella Mammucari
- Supercritical Fluids Research group, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Neil R. Foster
- Supercritical Fluids Research group, School of Chemical Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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Teutenberg T, Wiese S, Wagner P, Gmehling J. High-temperature liquid chromatography. Part III: Determination of the static permittivities of pure solvents and binary solvent mixtures—Implications for liquid chromatographic separations. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:8480-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.09.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2009] [Revised: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 09/28/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Teutenberg T. Potential of high temperature liquid chromatography for the improvement of separation efficiency—A review. Anal Chim Acta 2009; 643:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2009.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2009] [Revised: 04/01/2009] [Accepted: 04/03/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Teutenberg T, Hollebekkers K, Wiese S, Boergers A. Temperature and pH-stability of commercial stationary phases. J Sep Sci 2009; 32:1262-74. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200800712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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17
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High-temperature liquid chromatography of steroids on a bonded hybrid column. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 394:1255-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2602-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2008] [Revised: 12/19/2008] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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18
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Fogwill MO, Thurbide KB. Carbon dioxide modified subcritical water chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1200:49-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2007] [Revised: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 03/13/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Hype and hypernation: multiple hyphenation of column liquid chromatography and spectroscopy. Trends Analyt Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2007.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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21
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Yang Y. Subcritical water chromatography: A green approach to high-temperature liquid chromatography. J Sep Sci 2007; 30:1131-40. [PMID: 17595948 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200700008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
At temperatures and pressures lower than 374 degrees C and 218 atm, subcritical water has widely tunable properties such as dielectric constant, surface tension, viscosity, and dissociation constant achieved by simply adjusting the temperature with a moderate pressure to keep water in the liquid state. At elevated temperatures, water acts like a weak polar organic solvent. Thus, subcritical water has been used as a green eluent to replace hazardous solvents commonly used as organic modifiers in RPLC. Subcritical water chromatography (SBWC) is capable of separating polar, moderately polar, and even some nonpolar analytes. Most of these low molecular weight solutes are stable at elevated temperatures during a chromatographic run. Some new packing materials are also quite stable and robust at mild temperatures ranging from 80 to 150 degrees C. Advantages of SBWC include the elimination of hazardous organic solvents used in traditional RPLC, rapid analysis time, improved selectivity, temperature-dependent separation efficiency, temperature-programmed elution, and compatibility with both gas- and liquid-phase detectors. In this paper, the technical aspects as well as the applications of SBWC are reviewed. Topics addressed in this review include the unique characteristics of subcritical water, analytes separated by SBWC, packing materials tested for SBWC, the application of GC and LC detection techniques in SBWC, SBWC instrumentation development, temperature effects on SBWC separation, and models developed for separation in SBWC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Yang
- Department of Chemistry, East Carolina University, Science and Technology Building, Suite 300, Greenville, NC 27858, USA.
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22
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Coym JW, Dorsey JG. Superheated Water Chromatography: A Brief Review of an Emerging Technique. ANAL LETT 2007. [DOI: 10.1081/al-120030294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian A. Jones
- a Selerity Technologies, Inc. , 2484 W. Custer Road, Salt Lake City , Utah , 84104 , USA
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Smith RM. Superheated water chromatography--a green technology for the future. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1184:441-55. [PMID: 17658536 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2007] [Revised: 06/27/2007] [Accepted: 07/02/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Reversed phase liquid chromatography using superheated water as the mobile phase, at temperatures between 100 and 250 degrees C, offers a number of advantages for the analyst. It is an environmentally clean solvent, reducing solvent usage and disposal costs. It has advantages in detection, allowing UV spectra to be monitored down to short wavelengths, as well as a compatibility with universal flame ionisation detection and mass spectroscopy. By employing deuterium oxide as the eluent, solvent free NMR spectra can be measured. The development of newer more thermally stable stationary phases, including hybrid phases, have expanded the analytes that can be examined and these now range from alkylbenzenes, phenols, alkyl aryl ketones and a number of pharmaceuticals to carboxylic acids, amino acids, and carbohydrates. Very few compounds have been found to be unstable during the analysis. The separation methods can be directly coupled to superheated water extraction providing a totally solvent free system for sample extraction and analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger M Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leics LE11 3TU, UK.
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Teutenberg T, Tuerk J, Holzhauser M, Giegold S. Temperature stability of reversed phase and normal phase stationary phases under aqueous conditions. J Sep Sci 2007; 30:1101-14. [PMID: 17595945 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200600507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In this study the temperature stability of several normal phase and RP columns was investigated using a water-only mobile phase. The temperature was adjusted to 120 degrees C for the bare silica stationary phases and to 185 degrees C for the metal oxide and carbon stationary phases. It could be shown that metal oxide stationary phases exhibited excellent thermal stability over the duration of the test period and are therefore suitable for high temperature LC applications.
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Guillarme D, Heinisch S. Detection Modes with High Temperature Liquid Chromatography—A Review. SEPARATION AND PURIFICATION REVIEWS 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/15422110500323055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. Guillarme
- a Laboratory of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences EPGL , Geneva University , Switzerland
| | - S. Heinisch
- b Laboratoire des Sciences Analytiques (CNRS UMR 5180) , Université Claude Bernard , Villeurbanne Cedex , France
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27
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Fogwill MO, Thurbide KB. Rapid column heating method for subcritical water chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1139:199-205. [PMID: 17126845 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2006] [Revised: 11/01/2006] [Accepted: 11/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A novel resistive heating method is presented for subcritical water chromatography (SWC) that provides higher column heating rates than those conventionally obtained from temperature-programmed gas chromatography (GC) convection ovens. Since the polarity of water reduces dramatically with increasing temperature, SWC employs column heating to achieve gradient elution. As such, the rate at which the mobile phase is heated directly impacts the magnitude of such gradients applied in SWC. Data from the current study demonstrate that the maximum column heating rate attainable in a typical SWC apparatus (i.e. using a GC convection oven) is around 10 degrees C/min, even at instrument oven settings of over three times this value. Conversely, by wrapping the separation column with ceramic insulation and a resistively heated wire, the column heating rates are increased five-fold. As a result, elution times can be greatly decreased in SWC employing gradients. Separations of standard alcohol test mixtures demonstrate that the retention time of the latest eluting component decreases by 35 to 50% using the prototype method. Additionally, solute retention times in this mode deviate by less than 1% RSD over several trials, which compares very well to those obtained using a conventional GC convection oven. Results suggest that the developed method can be a useful alternative heating technique in SWC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael O Fogwill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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Smith RM. Superheated water: the ultimate green solvent for separation science. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 385:419-21. [PMID: 16715273 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0437-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Roger M Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK.
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Yang Z. Online hyphenated liquid chromatography-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy-mass spectrometry for drug metabolite and nature product analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2005; 40:516-27. [PMID: 16280226 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2005.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2005] [Revised: 09/20/2005] [Accepted: 10/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Screening analysis that aims at rapidly distinguishing new molecules in the presence of a large number of known compounds becomes increasingly important in the fields of drug metabolite profiling and nature product investigation. In the past decade, online-coupled liquid chromatography-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy-mass spectrometry (LC-NMR-MS) has emerged as a powerful tool for the detection and identification of known and, more important, emerging compounds in complex clinical, pharmaceutical samples and nature product extracts, due to the complementary information provided by the two detectors for unambiguous structure elucidation. This review discusses the practical conditions under which LC-NMR-MS is suitable as a routine tool for unknown analysis, as well as the fundamental concepts and their advantage aspects. Particular attention is paid to its major operating parameters that include the instrumental configurations, working modes, NMR probe improvement and LC mobile phase selection. Finally, the recent applications of LC-NMR-MS to clinical metabolite and nature product analysis are summarized which have shown the benefit of this promising hyphenated technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Yang
- Public Health Laboratory Division, Minnesota Department of Health, 2520 Silver Ln NE 204, Minneapolis, MN 55421, USA.
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Chienthavorn O, Smith RM, Wilson ID, Wright B, Lenz EM. Superheated water chromatography-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of kava lactones. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2005; 16:217-21. [PMID: 15997856 DOI: 10.1002/pca.848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Three kava lactone constituents of Piper methysticum, namely, kawain, methysticin and desmethoxyyangonin, have been separated and identified by reversed-phase HPLC using superheated deuterium oxide as the mobile phase and on-line 1H-NMR detection. The method avoids the use of organic solvents in the mobile phase and hence interferences in the NMR analysis are minimised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orapin Chienthavorn
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
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Chienthavorn O, Smith RM, Saha S, Wilson ID, Wright B, Taylor SD, Lenz EM. Superheated water chromatography-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry of vitamins. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2004; 36:477-82. [PMID: 15522520 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2004.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2004] [Accepted: 07/18/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The water-soluble vitamins, pyridoxine, riboflavin, and thiamine, were separated by reversed-phase liquid chromatography using hot or superheated water as the mobile phase and were detected using a range of detectors, including ultraviolet and fluorescence spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. By using deuterium oxide as the eluent, direct on-line nuclear magnetic resonance spectra could be obtained with minimal spectral interference from the mobile phase. Some of the compounds showed deuterium exchange of alkyl-protons when separated at high temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orapin Chienthavorn
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leics LE11 3TU, UK
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Marin SJ, Jones BA, Felix WD, Clark J. Effect of high-temperature on high-performance liquid chromatography column stability and performance under temperature-programmed conditions. J Chromatogr A 2004; 1030:255-62. [PMID: 15043277 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2003.10.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Six commercially available analytical (4.1 or 4.6 mm i.d.) columns were evaluated under temperature-programmed high-temperature liquid chromatography (HTLC) conditions to access their stability and performance at extreme temperatures. Seven components consisting of acidic, basic and neutral compounds were analyzed under temperature-programmed conditions and solvent gradient conditions using three different mobile phase compositions (acidic, basic and neutral). Each column was checked with a two-component test mix at various stages of the evaluation to look for signs of stationary phase collapse. Three zirconia based stationary phases studied exhibited column bleed under temperature-programmed conditions. The other three columns, a polydentate silica column, a polystyrene-divinylbenzene (PS-DVB) polymeric column, and a graphitic carbon column performed well with no evidence of stationary phase degradation. The R.S.D. for the retention times and efficiencies were less than 10% for most conditions, and not more than 15% during the course of the evaluation for each column. The polydentate silica stationary phase was temperature programmed to 100 degrees C, the PS-DVB stationary phase was temperature programmed up to 150 degrees C, and the graphitic carbon column was used with temperature programming up to 200 degrees C. Comparable peak capacities and similar retention behaviors were observed under solvent gradient and temperature-programmed conditions. Temperature programming with dynamic mobile phase preheating can replace solvent gradient analysis without a loss of peak capacity when used with 4.1 or 4.6 mm columns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie J Marin
- Selerity Technologies Inc., 2484 W Custer Road, Salt Lake City, UT 84104, USA.
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Kondo T, Yang Y. Comparison of elution strength, column efficiency, and peak symmetry in subcritical water chromatography and traditional reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Anal Chim Acta 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(03)00865-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
The present state of the active use of elevated temperatures in liquid chromatography is reviewed, including the effects on retention, selectivity and efficiency. Separations in aqueous mobile phases as well as non-aqueous media are discussed, with particular emphasis on narrow-bore columns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyge Greibrokk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, POB 1033 Blindern, N-0315 Oslo, Norway.
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Lamm LJ, Yang Y. Off-line coupling of subcritical water extraction with subcritical water chromatography via a sorbent trap and thermal desorption. Anal Chem 2003; 75:2237-42. [PMID: 12918961 DOI: 10.1021/ac020724o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the off-line coupling of subcritical water extraction (SBWE) with subcritical water chromatography (SBWC) was achieved using a sorbent trap and thermal desorption. The sorbent trap was employed to collect the extracted analytes during subcritical water extraction. After the extraction, the trap was connected to the subcritical water chromatography system, and thermal desorption of the trapped analytes was performed before the SBWC run. The thermally desorbed analytes were then introduced into the subcritical water separation column and detected by a UV detector. Anilines and phenols were extracted from sand and analyzed using this off-line coupling technique. Subcritical water extraction of flavones from orange peel followed by subcritical water chromatographic separation was also investigated. The effects of water volume and extraction temperature on flavone recovery were determined. Because a sorbent trap was used to collect the extracted analytes, the sensitivity of this technique was greatly enhanced as compared to that of subcritical water extraction with solvent trapping. Since no organic solvent-water extractions were necessary prior to analysis, this technique eliminated any use of organic solvents in both extraction and chromatography processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori J Lamm
- Department of Chemistry, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858, USA
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Saha S, Smith RM, Lenz E, Wilson ID. Analysis of a ginger extract by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy using superheated deuterium oxide as the mobile phase. J Chromatogr A 2003; 991:143-50. [PMID: 12703908 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(03)00215-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A methanolic extract of powdered ginger was separated on a Xterra RP 18 column using deuterium oxide as the eluent and a temperature gradient from 50 to 130 degrees C at 4 degrees C/min. On-line and off-line HPLC-NMR analysis yielded spectra for vanillin, dihydroferulic acid, zingerone and ferulic acid. The identification of dihydroferulic acid and zingerone were confirmed by mass spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikha Saha
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
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He P, Yang Y. Studies on the long-term thermal stability of stationary phases in subcritical water chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2003; 989:55-63. [PMID: 12641282 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(02)01656-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The long-term thermal stability of five commercially available reversed-phase columns has been evaluated under subcritical water conditions (100 and 150 degrees C). The five columns included Zorbax RX-C8, Nucleosil C18 AB, Hypersil BDS C18, PRP-1 (poly(styrene-divinylbenzene)), and ZirChrom-PS (polystyrene) columns. Retention factors, plate numbers, and peak areas were monitored over a prolonged period of time. Comparing the three silica-based columns, the Zorbax RX-C, column was the most stable followed by the Nucleosil C18, AB column. The Hypersil BDS C18 column was the least stable under subcritical water conditions. The ZirChrom-PS column was stable at 100 degrees C for at least 7600 column volumes. Of all five columns, the polymeric PRP-1 column was the most stable under subcritical water conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping He
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858-4353, USA
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38
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Yarita T, Nakajima R, Shibukawa M. Superheated water chromatography of phenols using poly(styrene-divinylbenzene) packings as a stationary phase. ANAL SCI 2003; 19:269-72. [PMID: 12608758 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.19.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A method for the superheated water chromatography of phenols was developed using a poly(styrene-divinylbenzene) (PSDVB) stationary phase. The stationary phase of superheated water chromatography must be stable against the attack of water. A durability test for PSDVB packings and octadecylsilyl (ODS)-silica gels indicated that PSDVB packings were stable in superheated water in the temperature range of 100-150 degrees C, whereas octadecylsilyl groups of ODS-silica gels cleaved even at 100 degrees C. The retention of phenols on the PSDVB stationary phase decreased with an elevation of the column temperature. The retention mechanism was characterized using a thermodynamic theory that has been used for describing retention in conventional RP-HPLC. The application of the present method to an environmental analysis was also demonstrated, in which a suitable separation with good peak shape was obtained for p-chlorophenol in river-water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Yarita
- National Metrology Institute of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba Central 3, Umezono, Tsukuba 305-8563, Japan
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39
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Biomedical applications of directly-coupled chromatography–nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s1567-7192(03)80011-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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40
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Louden D, Handley A, Lafont R, Taylor S, Sinclair I, Lenz E, Orton T, Wilson ID. HPLC analysis of ecdysteroids in plant extracts using superheated deuterium oxide with multiple on-line spectroscopic analysis (UV, IR, 1H NMR, and MS). Anal Chem 2002; 74:288-94. [PMID: 11795808 DOI: 10.1021/ac0107397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
HPLC, using superheated D20 as the mobile phase, combined with on-line characterization via a combination of diode array UV, 1H NMR, FT-IR spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry has been used for the analysis of a standard of 20-hydroxyecdysone- and ecdysteroid-containing plant extracts. This combination of spectrometers enabled the on-flow collection of UV, 1H NMR, IR, and mass spectra not only for pure 20-hydroxyecdysone (100-400 microg on column) but also the major ecdysteroids present in crude extracts of Silene otites, Silene nutans, and Silene frivaldiskyana. The ecdysteroids unequivocally identified in these extracts included 20-hydroxyecdysone, polypodine B, and integristerone A.
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41
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42
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Lindon JC, Nicholson JK, Wilson ID. Directly coupled HPLC-NMR and HPLC-NMR-MS in pharmaceutical research and development. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND APPLICATIONS 2000; 748:233-58. [PMID: 11092602 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)00320-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The methodology for the direct coupling of HPLC with NMR spectroscopy and the simultaneous double coupling of HPLC with NMR and mass spectrometry (MS) is described. Indications of the necessary technical developments to achieve this are given, and the applications of these new techniques to studies of pharmaceutical relevance are reviewed. These include studies of combinatorial chemistry libraries, synthetic chemical impurities, characterisation of drug mixtures, identification of natural products of possible pharmaceutical interest and identification of xenobiotic metabolites in human, animal and in vitro systems. In addition, HPLC-NMR has been used to investigate xenobiotic metabolite reactivity. Finally, the potential future directions of the techniques are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Lindon
- Biological Chemistry, Biomedical Sciences, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, South Kensington, London, UK.
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43
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Wilson ID. Multiple hyphenation of liquid chromatography with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and beyond. J Chromatogr A 2000; 892:315-27. [PMID: 11045496 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(00)00071-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The advent of sensitive and reliable HPLC-NMR and HPLC-MS systems has revolutionised the identification of compounds eluting from chromatographic systems. More recently systems have been described wherein both NMR and MS are used together to provide an immensely powerful means of characterising compounds in chromatographic eluents. Here the construction and application of combined HPLC-NMR-MS systems to the analysis of mixtures of pharmaceuticals, drug metabolites in biological fluids and natural products in plant extracts is reviewed. In addition preliminary work with alternative systems such as HPLC-UV-NMR-FTIR-MS is highlighted and the prospects for such complex systems considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- I D Wilson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Department, AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK.
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Smith RM, Chienthavorn O, Saha S, Wilson ID, Wright B, Taylor SD. Selective deuterium exchange during superheated heavy water chromatography-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy-mass spectrometry of sulfonamides. J Chromatogr A 2000; 886:289-95. [PMID: 10950296 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(00)00493-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Superheated deuterium oxide has been investigated as an eluent for reversed-phase HPLC on a polystyrene-divinylbenzene column with UV, 1H NMR and MS detection using a series of sulfonamides as model compounds. In the course of these studies, a selective, specific and efficient deuteration of the methyl groups on a pyrimidine ring was observed during chromatography of certain of the sulfonamides. The potential of this methodology for producing deuterium-labelled compounds from substances bearing suitable substituents is considered. The utility of HPLC-NMR-MS as a means for studying on-column reactions is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK
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45
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Wilson ID. Investigation of a range of stationary phases for the separation of model drugs by HPLC using superheated water as the mobile phase. Chromatographia 2000. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02493117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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