In-use stability of ready-to-administer daratumumab subcutaneous injection solution in plastic syringes

OBJECTIVE

In multiple myeloma patients, daratumumab is preferably injected subcutaneously. The summary of product characteristics of daratumumab subcutaneous injection solution specifies physicochemical stability for the prepared syringe for 24 hours at 2-8°C protected from light, and another 12 hours at room temperature (15-25°C) in ambient light conditions. The aim of this study was to determine the in-use stability of ready-to-administer daratumumab subcutaneous injection solution in different types of syringe and different conditions over a 28-day period.

METHODS

Daratumumab subcutaneous (DARZALEX 1800 mg) injection solution was withdrawn into disposable three-piece Luer-Lock syringes (20 mL, 50 mL), capped, and stored light protected at 2-8°C or at room temperature (22±2°C) over a maximum period of 28 days. Samples were taken immediately after preparation (day 0) and after 2, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. Physicochemical stability was determined by ion-exchange high-performance liquid chromatography (IE-HPLC) and size-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC) with ultraviolet detection, pH measurement and visual inspection for particles or colour changes.

RESULTS

In the IE-HPLC assay, peak areas and peak-to-peak area ratios remained unchanged over the whole study period, and showed no additional peaks of degraded daratumumab charge variants. In the SE-HPLC assay, neither a formation of aggregates nor of fragments was detected. Daratumumab monomer concentrations exceeded 95% of the initially measured concentrations over the entire test period. pH values remained constant. Test solutions remained clear, and no colour changes or visible particles were detected. All results were independent of storage conditions.

CONCLUSION

Daratumumab subcutaneous injection solution proved to be physicochemically stable in capped three-piece plastic syringes for at least 28 days when stored light protected at 2-8°C or at room temperature (22±2°C). For microbiological reasons aseptic preparation and refrigerated storage are recommended. In-use stability of ready-to-administer daratumumab subcutaneous syringes prepared under appropriate aseptic conditions is given for 28 days.

Quality Control of Personalized Drug Products - Identity and Quantity of Monoclonal Antibodies as Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient

Deliberate underdosing occurred in personalized preparations of drugs such as monoclonal antibodies as the active pharmaceutical ingredient in the past. To ensure the required quality standard and to prevent future fraud attempts at an early stage, a HPLC-DAD-HRMS method was established. Thereby, identity and quantity of the active ingredients bevacizumab, rituximab and trastuzumab were determined. The analysis of ten samples from seven pharmacies fulfilled the quality criteria and were therefore not objectionable.

Pollutant load and ecotoxicological effects of sediment from stormwater retention basins to receiving surface water on Lumbriculus variegatus

The overflow of stormwater retention basins during intense and prolonged precipitation events may result in the direct input of particulate pollutants and remobilization of already sedimented particle-bound pollutants to receiving freshwater bodies. Particle-bound pollutants may cause adverse effects on aquatic biota, particularly sediment dwellers. Therefore, we investigated the sediment pollution load of a stream connected to the outfalls of two stormwater basins to determine the impact of the basins' discharges on the metal and organic pollutant content of the sediment. Also, the possible adverse effects of the pollutant load on benthic dwellers were evaluated in sediment toxicity tests with Lumbriculus variegatus and the effects on its growth, reproduction and the biomarkers catalase, acetylcholinesterase and metallothionein were analyzed. The results showed that the retention basins contained the highest load of pollutants. The pollutant load in the stream did not show a clear pollution pattern from the inlets. However, metal enrichment ratios revealed contamination with Cu, Pb and Zn with Pb and Zn above threshold effect concentrations in all sites. Ecotoxicity results showed that the retention basin samples were the most toxic compared to sediment from the stream. Exposure experiments with the stream sediment did not show considerable effects on reproduction, catalase activity and metallothionein concentration. However, modest inhibitions of growth and activity of acetylcholinesterase were detected. Based on the observed results, it cannot be concluded that overflows of the retention basin are responsible for the pollutant contents downstream of their inlet. Other sources that were not considered in this study, such as diffuse input, historic pollution and point sources further upstream as well as along the stream, are likely the major contributors of pollutant load in the sediment of the studied transects of the stream. Additionally, the observed results in the stormwater basin sediment further highlight their importance in retaining particle-bound pollutants and preventing ecotoxicological effects from receiving surface water bodies.

Development and validation of a method for airborne monoclonal antibodies to quantify workplace exposure

Modern therapy strategies are based on patient-specific treatment where the drug and dose are optimally adapted to the patient's needs. In recent drugs, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are increasingly used as active ingredients. Their patient-specific formulations are not part of the pharmaceutical industry's manufacturing process but are prepared from concentrates by pharmaceutical personnel. During the manufacturing process, however, active pharmaceutical ingredients are released in trace amounts or, in the case of accidents and spills, also in high concentrations. Regardless of the source of entry, mAbs can become airborne, be inhaled, and cause undesirable side-effects such as sensitization. To assess the risk for pharmaceutical personnel, a personal air sampling method was developed and validated for bevacizumab, cetuximab, daratumumab, omalizumab, rituximab and trastuzumab. The method is based on the combination of high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The analytical method achieves a limit of detection of 0.30-8.8 ng mL^-1, recoveries of 83-96 % (intra-day assay) and 75-89 % (inter-day assay), with no detectable carry-over. A polycarbonate filter proved suitable for sampling airborne monoclonal antibodies, as it achieved 80-104 % recovery across all mAbs. It also showed concentration-independent desorption efficiency. The sampling duration can be up to 480 min without negatively affecting the recovery. MAbs are stable on the polycarbonate filter at 5 °C for 3 days (recovery: 94 % ± 5 %) and at - 20 °C for 14 days (recovery: 97 % ± 4 %). Our method demonstrated that there is a potential for release when handling monoclonal antibodies. However, this can be reduced below the limit of detection by using pressure equalization systems (spikes).

Microplastic sampling from wastewater treatment plant effluents: Best-practices and synergies between thermoanalytical and spectroscopic analysis

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) may represent point sources for microplastic discharge into the environment. Quantification of microplastic in effluents of WWTPs has been targeted by several studies although standardized methods are missing to enable a comparability of results. This study discusses theoretical and practical perspectives on best practices for microplastic sampling campaigns of WWTPs. One focus of the study was the potential for synergies between thermoanalytical and spectroscopic analysis to gain more representative sampling using the complementary information provided by the different analytical techniques. Samples were obtained before and after sand filtration from two WWTPs in Germany using cascade filtration with size classes of 5,000 - 100 µm, 100 - 50 µm, and 50 - 10 µm. For spectroscopic methods samples were treated by a Fenton process to remove natural organic matter, whereas TED-GC-MS required only sample extraction from the filter cascade. µFTIR spectroscopy was used for the 100 µm and 50 µm basket filters and µRaman spectroscopy was applied to analyze particles on the smallest basket filter (10 µm). TED-GC-MS was used for all size classes as it is size independent. All techniques showed a similar trend, where PE was consistently the most prominent polymer in WWTP effluents. Based on this insight, PE was chosen as surrogate polymer to investigate whether it can describe the total polymer removal efficiency of tertiary sand filters. The results revealed no significant difference (ANOVA) between retention efficiencies of tertiary sand filtration obtained using only PE and by analyzing all possible polymers with µFTIR and µRaman spectroscopy. Findings from this study provide valuable insights on advantages and limitations of cascade filtration, the benefit of complementary analyses, a suitable design for future experimental approaches, and recommendations for future investigations.

High-performance thin-layer chromatography in combination with an acetylcholinesterase-inhibition bioassay with pre-oxidation of organothiophosphates to determine neurotoxic effects in storm, waste, and surface water

Pesticides such as organothiophosphates (OTPs) are neurotoxically active and enter the aquatic environment. Bioassays, using acetylcholinesterase (AChE), a suitable substrate and reactant, can be applied for the photometric detection of AChE-inhibiton (AChE-I) effects. The oxidized forms of OTPs, so-called oxons, have higher inhibition potentials for AChE. Therefore, a higher sensitivity is achieved for application of oxidized samples to the AChE assay. In this study, the oxidation of malathion, parathion, and chlorpyrifos by n-bromosuccinimide (NBS) was investigated in an approach combining high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) with an AChE-I assay. Two AChE application approaches, immersion and spraying, were compared regarding sensitivity, precision, and general feasibility of the OTP effect detection. The oxidation by NBS led to an activation of the OTPs and a strong increase in sensitivity similar to the oxons tested. The sensitivity and precision of the two application techniques were similar, although the spray method was slightly more sensitive to the oxidized OTPs. The 10% inhibition concentrations (IC10) for the spray approach were 0.26, 0.75, and 0.35 ng/spot for activated malathion, parathion, and chlorpyrifos, respectively. AChE-I effect recoveries in samples from a stormwater retention basin and receiving stream were between 69 and 92% for malathion, parathion, and chlorpyrifos. The overall workflow, including sample enrichment by solid-phase extraction, HPTLC, oxidation of OTPs, and AChE-I assay, was demonstrated to be suitable for the detection of AChE-I effects in native water samples. An effect of unknown origin was found in a sample from a stormwater retention basin.

Influence of water matrix on the degradation of organic micropollutants by ozone based processes: A review on oxidant scavenging mechanism

The prevalence of organic micropollutants (OMPs) in aquatic environment has expedited scientific and regulatory efforts to retrofit existing wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The current strategy involves WWTPs upgrading with post-ozonation i.e., ozone (O₃) and/or peroxone process (O₃ +H₂O₂). Still, ozone-based degradation of OMPs faces several challenges. For example, the degradation mechanism and kinetics of OMPs could largely be affected by water matrix compounds which include inorganic ions and natural organic matter (NOM). pH also plays a decisive role in determining the reactivity of the oxidants (O₃, H₂O₂, andHO^•), stability and speciation of matrix constituents and OMPs and thus susceptibility of OMPs to the reactions with oxidants. There have been reviews discussing the impact of matrix components on the degradation of OMPs by advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Nevertheless, a review focusing on scavenging mechanisms, formation of secondary oxidants and their scavenging effects with a particular focus on ozonation and peroxone process is lacking. Therefore, in order to broaden the knowledge on this subject, the database 'Web of Science' was searched for the studies related to the 'matrix effect on the degradation of organic micropollutants by ozone based processes' over the time period of 2004-2021. The relevant literature was thoroughly reviewed and following conclusions were made: i) chloride has inhibitory effects if it exits at higher concentrations or as free chlorine i.e. HOCl/ClO^-. ii) The inhibitory effects of chloride, bromide, HOBr/OBr^- and HOCl/ClO^- are dominant in neutral and alkaline conditions and may result in the formation of secondary oxidants (e.g., chlorine atoms or free bromine), which in turn contribute to pollutant degradation or form undesired oxidation by-products such as BrO₃^-, ClO₃^- and halogenated organic products. ii) NOM may induce inhibitory or synergetic effects depending on the type, chemical properties and concentration of NOM. Therefore, more efforts are required to understand the importance of pH variation as well as the effects of water matrix on the reactivity of oxidants and subsequent degradation of OMPs.

Biological effect and chemical monitoring of Watch List substances in European surface waters: Steroidal estrogens and diclofenac - Effect-based methods for monitoring frameworks

Three steroidal estrogens, 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), 17β-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), diclofenac have been included in the first Watch List of the Water Framework Directive (WFD, EU Directive 2000/60/EC, EU Implementing Decision 2015/495). This triggered the need for more EU-wide surface water monitoring data on these micropollutants, before they can be considered for inclusion in the list of priority substances regularly monitored in aquatic ecosystems. The revision of the priority substance list of the WFD offers the opportunity to incorporate more holistic bioanalytical approaches, such as effect-based monitoring, alongside single substance chemical monitoring. Effect-based methods (EBMs) are able to measure total biological activities (e.g., estrogenic activity or cyxlooxygenase [COX]-inhibition) of specific group of substances (such as estrogens and NSAIDs) in the aquatic environment at low concentrations (pg/L). This makes them potential tools for a cost-effective and ecotoxicologically comprehensive water quality assessment. In parallel, the use of such methods could build a bridge from chemical status assessments towards ecological status assessments by adressing mixture effects for relevant modes of action. Our study aimed to assess the suitability of implementing EBMs in the WFD, by conducting a large-scale sampling and analysis campaign of more than 70 surface waters across Europe. This resulted in the generation of high-quality chemical and effect-based monitoring data for the selected Watch List substances. Overall, water samples contained low estrogenicity (0.01-1.3 ng E2-Equivalent/L) and a range of COX-inhibition activity similar to previously reported levels (12-1600 ng Diclofenac-Equivalent/L). Comparison between effect-based and conventional analytical chemical methods showed that the chemical analytical approach for steroidal estrogens resulted in more (76%) non-quantifiable data, i.e., concentrations were below detection limits, compared to the EBMs (28%). These results demonstrate the excellent and sensitive screening capability of EBMs.

Advanced oxidation processes for waste water treatment: from laboratory-scale model water to on-site real waste water

A process combining three steps has been developed as a tertiary treatment for waste water in order to remove micropollutants not eliminated by a conventional waste water treatment plant (WWTP). These three processes are ozonation, photocatalysis and granulated activated carbon adsorption. This process has been developed through three scales: laboratory, pilot and pre-industrial scale. At each scale, its efficiency has been assessed on different waste waters: laboratory-made water, industrial waste water (one from a company cleaning textiles and another from a company preparing culture media, both being in continuous production mode) and municipal waste water. At laboratory scale, a TiO₂-based photocatalytic coating has been produced and the combination of ozonation-UVC photocatalytic treatment has been evaluated on the laboratory-made water containing 22 micropollutants. The results showed an efficient activity leading to complete or partial degradation of all compounds and an effective carbon for residual micropollutant adsorption was highlighted. Experiments at pilot scale (100 L of water treated at 500 L/h from a tank of 200 L) corroborated the results obtained at laboratory scale. Moreover, tests on municipal waste water showed a decrease in toxicity, measured on Daphnia Magma, and a decrease in micropollutant concentration after treatment. Finally, a pre-industrial container was built and evaluated as a tertiary treatment at the WWTP Duisburg-Vierlinden. It is shown that the main parameters for the efficiency of the process are the flow rate and the light intensity. The photocatalyst plays a role by degrading the more resistant micropollutants. Adsorption permits an overall elimination >95% of all molecules detected.

Effect-based evaluation of ozone treatment for removal of micropollutants and their transformation products in waste water

The aim of this interdisciplinary research project in North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), Germany, entitled "Elimination of pharmaceuticals and organic micropollutants from waste water" involved the conception of cost-effective and innovative waste-water cleaning methods. In this project in vitro assays, in vivo assays and chemical analyses were performed on three municipal waste-water treatment plants (WWTP). This publication focuses on the study of the in vitro bioassays. Cytotoxic, estrogenic, genotoxic and mutagenic effects of the original as well as enriched water samples were monitored before and after wastewater treatment steps using MTT and PAN I, ER Calux and A-YES, micronucleus and Comet assays as well as AMES test. In most cases, the measured effects were reduced after ozonation, but in general, the biological response depended upon the water composition of the WWTP, in particular on the formed by-products and concentration of micropollutants. In order to be able to assess the genotoxic and/or mutagenic potential of waste-water samples using bioassays like Ames test, Comet assay or micronucleus test an enrichment of the water sample via solid-phase extraction is recommended. This is in agreement with previous studies such as the "ToxBox"-Project of the Environmental Agency in Germany.

High-performance thin-layer chromatography in combination with a yeast-based multi-effect bioassay to determine endocrine effects in environmental samples

Effect-directed analysis (EDA) that combines effect-based methods (EBMs) with high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) is a useful technique for spatial, temporal, and process-related effect evaluation and may provide a link between effect testing and responsible substance identification. In this study, a yeast multi endocrine-effect screen (YMEES) for the detection of endocrine effects is combined with HPTLC. Simultaneous detection of estrogenic, androgenic, and gestagenic effects on the HPTLC plate is achieved by mixing different genetically modified Arxula adeninivorans yeast strains, which contain either the human estrogen, androgen, or progesterone receptor. Depending on the yeast strain, different fluorescent proteins are formed when an appropriate substance binds to the specific hormone receptor. This allows to measure hormonal effects at different wavelengths. Two yeast cell application approaches, immersion and spraying, are compared. The sensitivity and reproducibility of the method are shown by dose-response investigations for reference compounds. The spraying approach indicated similar sensitivities and higher precisions for the tested hormones compared to immersion. The EC₁₀s for estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and progesterone (P4) were 95, 1.4, 10, 7.4, and 15 pg/spot, respectively. Recovery rates of E1, E2, EE2, DHT, and P4 between 88 and 120% show the usability of the general method in combination with sample enrichment by solid phase extraction (SPE). The simultaneous detection of estrogenic, androgenic, and gestagenic effects in wastewater and surface water samples demonstrates the successful application of the YMEES in such matrices. This promising method allows us to identify more than one endocrine effect on the same HPTLC plate, which saves time and material. The method could be used for comparison, evaluation, and monitoring of different river sites and wastewater treatment steps and should be tested in further studies.

Evaluation of a biological post-treatment after full-scale ozonation at a municipal wastewater treatment plant

To reduce the discharge of trace organic compounds into water bodies associated with potential toxic effects such as endocrine disruption, new advanced treatment methods are being investigated at several wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). One of the most studied and already implemented technologies is ozonation. However, ozonation only partially oxidizes trace organic compounds (TrOC) and as a result, transformation products (TPs) with unknown properties can be formed. In order to minimise the risk of releasing unknown and potentially toxic TPs into surface water, it is recommended to install a biological post-treatment after ozonation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of a moving bed reactor following ozonation in a full-scale plant. Different ozone dosages (z_spec. = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 mg _O3/mg_DOC) were investigated. To assess the biological activity of the post-treatment, the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) was determined in addition to the formed biomass. Furthermore, selected TrOC were analysed in parallel to monitor the ozonation efficiency at different ozone doses. In addition, estrogenic, androgenic as well as corresponding antagonistic effects were investigated after each treatment step using the A-YES and A-YAS assay. A non-target screening was performed to evaluate a trend analysis of formed TPs as well as their removal by the post-treatment procedure. The results proved the successful design of the biological post-treatment reactor by a constant biofilm development and reduction of the AOC. Endocrine effects were removed below the limit of detection (LOD) of 10 pg EEQ/L already after ozonation for all applied ozone doses. Antagonistic effects were not significantly reduced during ozonation and subsequent biological post-treatment. For this reason, further research is needed to evaluate different post-treatment technologies. The trend analysis from non-target screening data showed a reduction of about 95% of the number of formed TPs by the biological post-treatment. Consequently, an assessment of the biological activity and the elimination capacity of a certain biological post-treatment technique is thus possible by applying the AOC in combination with a non-target screening.

Advanced photocatalytic oxidation processes for micropollutant elimination from municipal and industrial water

The objective of this study was to develop and validate an innovative technology to ensure efficient elimination of different types of micropollutants and toxic compounds in waste water. The process is a tertiary treatment process, which can be easily integrated into municipal and industrial waste water treatment plants. It is based on oxidation by ozone and subsequent photocatalytic treatment. After development and validation of this system at laboratory scale, the solution was tested at pilot scale. The first part of this work was to develop a TiO₂-based film on glass substrate, characterize its physico-chemical properties and optimize its composition at laboratory scale to be photoactive on the degradation of model water containing several pollutants. The model water consisted of a mixture of 22 major micropollutants including pesticides, plasticizers, brominated compounds, and pharmaceuticals. The best photocatalyst for the degradation of the selected micropollutants was a TiO₂ coating doped with 2 wt% of Ag and where 10 wt% P25 was added. Then, in order to scale up the process, its deposition on steel substrates was tested with dip and spray coating at laboratory scale. Calcination parameters were optimized to limit steel corrosion while keeping similar photoactive properties regarding the degradation of the model polluted water. The optimized solution was deposited by spray coating in a pilot scale reactor in order to assess its efficiency in a pilot water treatment plant.

Cost-effective reduction of micro pollutants in the water cycle - Case study on iodinated contrast media

Surface waters, especially in densely populated areas, are facing multiple anthropogenic pressures. Micro pollutants are of growing concern. Improved analytical methods are used to focus on substances like ICM with a (high) potential of hazardous effects against water organisms or the water quality in general ICM are essential for instance in computer tomographic examinations in medical facilities. Discharge of ICM to the sewer system occurs via human urine excretions. Common waste water treatment plants do not eliminate these substances completely. Therefore, increasing concentrations are found in the rivers worldwide. The project MERK'MAL explored a potentially cost-effective measure to reduce ICM in the River Ruhr, located in Germany, North Rhine-Westphalia. The results from this pilot study show that urine bags are an effective measure to reduce ICM concentrations. During the urine collection with bags measurements of ICM concentrations have shown a reduction, compared to the baseline concentration that was measured at the same sampling point in the effluent of the corresponding waste water treatment plant. The ICM reduction ranged between 20 and 34% for the mean values and between 7 and 33% for the median value. Additional payment equivalent costs per examination with ICM are approx. 3.36 €, full costs including imputed costs are expected in a cost range of 5.38 € to 6.09 € per examination. The extension of the study is envisioned, helping to sustainably enhance water quality in the River Ruhr in terms of ICM concentrations.

Accumulation pattern and possible adverse effects of organic pollutants in sediments downstream of combined sewer overflows

The present study was conducted to investigate sediment accumulation patterns of PAHs, PCBs, flame retardants and pesticides along 100 m transects downstream from three different combined sewer overflows (CSOs). Additionally, the concentrations of PAHs and PCBs were quantified to allow a characterization of the sediment quality. The suspect screening revealed that usually more substances, especially pesticides and flame retardants, were detected in sediments located in the vicinity of CSOs. Except for PAHs at Location 1 and 3, all substances followed the same accumulation pattern, showing higher contaminations in sediments sampled downstream from the CSOs compared to an upstream located reference site. With increasing distance to the respective input, sediment concentrations decreased. Different accumulation patterns of PAHs at Locations 1 and 3 were related to high background concentrations of the receiving creek. Although the general contamination patterns were similar, the level of contamination was different at each location. PAH concentrations are indicative for the occurrence of sediment toxicity at Location 3. However, higher background concentrations in the receiving creek compared to concentrations present in the retention zone indicate a higher probability for sediment toxicity due to inherited waste or contamination from upper reaches. PCBs introduced by the sewer outfall at Location 1 significantly increased the toxic potential of sediments located in the vicinity of the CSO. The retention zones at Locations 2 and 3 appeared to be a good measure to trap particles and their associated pollutants before they accumulate in the creek sediments where they became potentially harmful for the aquatic biota. Based on this study recommendations for sampling strategies were concluded to harmonize sampling designs in studies analyzing the impact of point sources on the sediment quality and to minimize misinterpretation of results.

Correction to: (Anti-)estrogenic and (anti-)androgenic effects in wastewater during advanced treatment: comparison of three in vitro bioassays

Linda Gehrmann and Helena Bielak contributed equally to this work and are regarded as joint first authors.

Occurence and Prioritization of Pharmaceutical Active Compounds in Domestic/Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants

In this study, pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) were analyzed in the influent and effluent of a domestic wastewater treatment plant in Turkey and a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Germany and the toxicity of these wastewaters were estimated using a toxic unit (TU) approach. A total of 21 and 32 PhACs were detected in the domestic wastewater and the municipal wastewater, respectively. The TUs estimated for PhACs in municipal wastewater were higher than the TUs estimated for PhACs present in domestic wastewater. The levels of the anti-anxiety drug, oxazepam were estimated to be in the high risk category (HQ > 10) in both wastewaters. In bench-scale tests with ozonation, the removals of four PhACs in the municipal wastewater were investigated. At a dose of 2 mg/L ozone, 97%-98% of diclofenac and carbamazepine were removed. The lowest removal rate at 71% was observed for metoprolol.

Effect-based trigger values for in vitro and in vivo bioassays performed on surface water extracts supporting the environmental quality standards (EQS) of the European Water Framework Directive

Effect-based methods including cell-based bioassays, reporter gene assays and whole-organism assays have been applied for decades in water quality monitoring and testing of enriched solid-phase extracts. There is no common EU-wide agreement on what level of bioassay response in water extracts is acceptable. At present, bioassay results are only benchmarked against each other but not against a consented measure of chemical water quality. The EU environmental quality standards (EQS) differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable surface water concentrations for individual chemicals but cannot capture the thousands of chemicals in water and their biological action as mixtures. We developed a method that reads across from existing EQS and includes additional mixture considerations with the goal that the derived effect-based trigger values (EBT) indicate acceptable risk for complex mixtures as they occur in surface water. Advantages and limitations of various approaches to read across from EQS are discussed and distilled to an algorithm that translates EQS into their corresponding bioanalytical equivalent concentrations (BEQ). The proposed EBT derivation method was applied to 48 in vitro bioassays with 32 of them having sufficient information to yield preliminary EBTs. To assess the practicability and robustness of the proposed approach, we compared the tentative EBTs with observed environmental effects. The proposed method only gives guidance on how to derive EBTs but does not propose final EBTs for implementation. The EBTs for some bioassays such as those for estrogenicity are already mature and could be implemented into regulation in the near future, while for others it will still take a few iterations until we can be confident of the power of the proposed EBTs to differentiate good from poor water quality with respect to chemical contamination.

Comprehensive analysis of antagonistic endocrine activity during ozone treatment of hospital wastewater

To reduce the discharge of micropollutants, advanced wastewater treatment methods were investigated in the last years. Estrogenic effects were found to be reduced by ozonation. These activities are usually measured using genetically modified cell-based tests. As these bioassays are representing a sum parameter, also inhibitory effects such as antagonistic effects need to be further investigated as they are potentially reducing the detected activities. Therefore, a direct comparison of chemical target analysis and biological equivalent concentrations measured by bioassays is often difficult. To investigate the fate of antagonistic activities and their role in mixtures with agonistic activities, two hospital wastewater treatment plants were studied after different treatment steps. Thereby highly enriched samples were analyzed by a combination of bioassays with chemical target and non-target analyses. In order to achieve an in-depth characterization of the antagonistic activities a fractionation of the enriched samples was performed. To identify relevant compounds an effect directed identification approach was used by combining high-resolution mass spectrometry and bioassays. The results showed a high reduction for estrogene and androgene activities. However, a constant antagonistic activity after membrane bioreactor and ozone treatment was observed. A reduction of the antagonistic activity was observed after passing an activated carbon filter. The fractionation approach showed a specific finger-print of each sample of the different treatment steps. Hereby we could show that the composition of agonistic and antagonistic active compounds is changing after each treatment step while the overall measured activity stays the same. Using fractionation and the combination of bioassays the number of relevant features detected by chemical non-target screening could be reduced by >85%. As a result the phosphorous flame retardant TCEP could be identified as anti-estrogene active. Future research should be done to identify more antagonistic active compounds and potentially active transformation products after ozone treatment.

Endocrine effects after ozonation of tamoxifen

Ozonation is used as additional wastewater treatment option to remove recalcitrant micropollutants. It also removes the estrogenic activity found in wastewater but not always the anti-estrogenic activity. This can be explained by an incomplete removal of anti-estrogenic micropollutants or by formation of transformation products (TPs) which retain the activity. The present study investigates the degradation of the anti-estrogenic pharmaceutical tamoxifen in pure water, regarding TP formation and related anti-estrogenic effect using Arxula adeninivorans yeast estrogen screen (A-YES). In total, five transformation products were detected: three N-oxides and two further products (TP 270 and TP 388). For the transformation product TP 270 a correlation of the extent of formation with an increase of the anti-estrogenic activity was determined, demonstrating that transformation products from ozonation can be more active in a bioassay than the parent compounds. Our study shows also that the transformation of tamoxifen to N-oxides reduces the anti-estrogenic activity. The reactivity of amines towards ozone typically increases with pH, since only deprotonated amines react with ozone. Hence, removal of the endocrine activity by N-oxide formation may be disfavored at low pH.

(Anti-)estrogenic and (anti-)androgenic effects in wastewater during advanced treatment: comparison of three in vitro bioassays

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals are mainly discharged into the environment by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and are known to induce adverse effects in aquatic life. Advanced treatment with ozone successfully removes such organic micropollutants, but an increase of estrogenic effects after the ozonation of hospital wastewater was observed in previous studies. In order to investigate this effect, estrogenic and androgenic as well as anti-estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities were observed during treatment of hospital wastewater using three different effect-based reporter gene bioassays. Despite different matrix influences, sensitivities, and test-specific properties, all assays used obtained comparable results. Estrogenic and androgenic activities were mainly reduced during the biological treatment and further removed during ozonation and sand filtration, resulting in non-detectable agonistic activities in the final effluent. An increased estrogenic activity after ozonation could not be observed in this study. Antagonistic effects were removed in the biological treatment by up to 50 % without further reduction in the advanced treatment. Due to the presence of antagonistic substances within the wastewater, masking effects were probable. Therefore, this study showed the relevance of antagonistic activities at hospital WWTPs and illustrates the need for a better understanding about antagonistic effects.

Separation and identification of hormone-active compounds using a combination of chromatographic separation and yeast-based reporter assay

Arxula adeninivorans-based yeast cell assays for the detection of steroid hormones demonstrated their efficiency for the determination of total hormone activity in a variety of samples using a microtiter plate format. In this study, a preliminary chromatographic separation using thin-layer chromatography plates is introduced in order to allow a rapid identification of the compounds responsible for this hormonal activity. The yeast whole cell assay can then be performed on the plate, producing a detectable signal where a steroid hormone is present. Simultaneous detection of estrogens, progestogens and androgens on the same plate in the picogram range was achieved, while keeping the assay as simple and affordable as possible. The assay requires a single incubation of the thin-layer chromatography plate and the detection of reporter protein production can be performed by fluorescence scanning of the plate at different wavelengths. The chromatographic separation allows the separation of several estrogens, androgens and progestogens, thus making its application for 'real world' samples very useful. In this work, different water-based samples from environmental origins were used to demonstrate the capacity of this new bioassay. Trials showed that most samples, with the exception of complex samples such as wastewater influent, can be assayed.

Investigation of full-scale ozonation at a municipal wastewater treatment plant using a toxicity-based evaluation concept

Effluents from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are known to be point sources of micropollutants for surface waters. The aim of this study was to examine a reconstructed full-scale ozonation equipped with a pump-injector system for ozone (O₃) dosage and a fluidized moving-bed reactor as biological posttreatment at a municipal WWTP utilizing an effect-directed approach. This approach consists of chemical analysis in combination with toxicological tests for the assessment of treatment efficiency of the plant. Chemical analysis showed elimination rates > 80% for pharmaceuticals and industrial chemicals. Analysis of endocrine disruptors was limited due to substance concentrations below the limit of detection (LOD). Estrogenic activity was detected by the Arxula Adeninivorans yeast estrogen screen (A-YES) at low concentrations (pg to ng EEQ/l range). Estrogenic activity was reduced by more than 90% after ozonation. In contrast, androgenic activity (measured in the Adeninivorans yeast androgen screen, A-YAS) was still found after O₃ treatment and after biological posttreatment, which is consistent with the data obtained by chemical analysis. Furthermore, no marked genotoxic or cytotoxic effects were observed after ozonation using the alkaline comet and 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromid (MTT) assays, respectively. Results suggest that the applied specific O₃ dose of 0.4 mg_O3/mg_DOC is a safe operation setup in terms of toxicologically relevant transformation products. In addition, no adverse effects on primary producers, as evidenced by algae growth inhibition tests, were detected. The monitored biofilm growth in the biological posttreatment exhibited a steady state after one month. Based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and biomass, one might conclude that O₃ did not apparently enter biological posttreatment to a great extent and that hydraulic retention time in the O₃ reactor was sufficient. Our data demonstrate the effectiveness of a full-scale O₃ treatment in combination with a fluidized moving-bed reactor as biological posttreatment for the reduction of a majority of micropollutants without the release of relevant toxic transformation products as assessed by a chemical and toxicity-based approach.

Photolytic degradation of the β-blocker nebivolol in aqueous solution

Nebivolol (NEB) is one of the top-sold prescription drugs belonging to the third generation of beta-blockers. However, so far, occurrence data in the environment are lacking. Within this study NEB has been found for the first time in effluent samples of wastewater treatment plants in Germany with an average concentration of 13 ng L^-1. Its photodegradation behavior in the environment and in technical processes is largely unknown. To fill this gap, three different UV treatment procedures (UV-C at 254 nm, UV-B at 312 nm and UV-A at 365 nm) were investigated in three different matrices: pure water, pure water in presence of the hydroxyl radical (OH) scavenger tert.-butanol and real wastewater. No elimination was observed during UV-A treatment. In contrast, NEB degradation during UV-B and UV-C treatment followed pseudo first order reaction kinetics, with highest removal rate during UV-C treatment in pure water (k = 7.8 × 10^-4 s^-1). The rate constant for UV-C irradiation decreased to 2.9 × 10^-4 s^-1 in the presence of the OH scavenger and in the presence of the wastewater matrix. The rate constant for the UV-B lamp was 4.4 × 10^-4 s^-1, Three transformation products were identified after UV-B and UV-C photolytic degradation using high resolution mass spectrometry. The main photoreaction is the substitution of the fluorine atoms of NEB by hydroxyl groups. A photolytic cleavage of the CF bond can be excluded as the high bond dissociation energy of aromatic CF bonds (525 kJ mol^-1), exceeds the energy of electromagnetic radiation applied in the present study (≥254 nm, i.e., max. 471 kJ E^-1). The quantum yields for NEB degradation for the UV-C lamp achieved in pure water, the OH scavenged system and wastewater matrix were Φ_deg = 0.53, 0.19 and 0.22, respectively. For UV-B Φ_deg was 0.023 ± 0.003, noticeable differences in quantum yield were not found. The photooxidation involves reactive oxygen species such as superoxide and singlet oxygen. These oxidative species may be formed upon reaction of photo-excited NEB with oxygen.

Characterization and toxicity of hospital wastewaters in Turkey

The aim of the study was to present first preliminary characterization of Turkish hospital wastewaters, their environmental risk, and a method for toxicity assessment. The hospital wastewater samples were collected from two of the largest medical faculty hospitals and a training and research hospital in Istanbul, Turkey. The samples from the selected hospitals were taken as grab samples on March 2014. Overall, 55 substances including pharmaceuticals and their metabolites, pesticides, and corrosion inhibitors were analyzed in all hospital wastewaters. Analysis of toxicity and the antibiotic resistance bacteria were investigated in addition to the chemical analysis in the wastewater of one hospital. Hazard quotients (HQs) and toxic units (TUs) were calculated as basis of the environmental risk assessment. Fourteen pharmaceuticals in hospital wastewater (HWW) were classified as "high risk" with HQ > 10. HQ_HWW values higher than 100 were determined for five antibiotics and one analgesic, namely, ofloxacin, clarithromycin, ciprofloxacin, sulfapyridine, trimethoprim, and diclofenac. Ofloxacin with an HQ_HWW of 9090 was observed to be the most hazardous compound. HQ and TU values of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent dropped significantly due to dilution in the sewer. Further elimination by biological degradation or adsorption was observed only in some cases. However, the decreased HQ_WWTPeffluent values do not the change environmental load significantly. Therefore, advanced treatment processes should be applied to remove the persistent compounds. In combination with the results on antibiotic resistance, we would prefer on-site treatment of hospital wastewater. Toxicological assessment was performed using cytotoxic and mutagenic screening tests. The results of the Ames assay showed that the native hospital wastewaters had strongly mutagenic activity with a ≤10-fold increase relative to negative controls. The mutagenic potentials of the samples were generally concentration and metabolic activation dependent. Multiple antibiotic resistances were demonstrated with the tested isolates to ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, and ceftazidime. This study demonstrates that the hospital wastewaters in Istanbul exhibit strong environmental and toxicological risks, as well as high multiple drug resistance to commonly used antibiotics.

Dependence of transformation product formation on pH during photolytic and photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is a broad-spectrum antibiotic with five pH dependent species in aqueous medium, which makes its degradation behavior difficult to predict. For the identification of transformation products and prediction of degradation mechanisms, a new experimental concept making use of isotopically labeled compounds together with high resolution mass spectrometry was successfully established. The utilization of deuterated ciprofloxacin (CIP-d8) facilitated the prediction of three different degradation pathways and the corresponding degradation products, four of which were identified for the first time. Moreover, two molecular structures of previously reported transformation products were revised according to the mass spectra and product ion spectra of the deuterated transformation products. Altogether, 18 transformation products have been identified during the photolytic and photocatalytic reactions at different pH values (3, 5, 7 and 9). In this work the influence of pH on both reaction kinetics and degradation mechanism was investigated for direct ultraviolet photolysis (UV-C irradiation) and photocatalysis (TiO2/UV-C). It could be shown that the removal rates strongly depended on pH with highest removal rates at pH 9. A comparison with those at pH 3 clearly indicated that under acidic conditions ciprofloxacin cannot be easily excited by UV irradiation. We could confirm that the first reaction step for both oxidative treatment processes is mainly defluorination, followed by degradation at the piperazine ring of CIP.

Fate and behaviour of diclofenac during hydrothermal carbonization

Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) has become an esteemed method to convert sewage sludge into biochar. Besides dewatering and disinfection the process is suggested to reduce the micropollutant load, which would be beneficial for the use of biochar as fertilizer. This study was designed to examine reduction of micropollutants and formation of transformation products during HTC using the example of diclofenac. We investigated compounds' removal at HTC conditions in inert experiments and in real samples. Results showed that HTC temperature (>190 °C) and pressure (∼15 bar) have the potential to fully degrade diclofenac in inert experiments and spiked sewage sludge (>99%) within 1 h. However, interfering effects hinder full removal in native samples resulting in 44% remaining diclofenac. Additionally, a combination of suspected-target and non-target analysis using LC-MS/MS and LC-HRMS resulted in the determination of six transformation products. These products have been reported in biochar from HTC for the first time, although other studies described them for other processes like advanced oxidation. Based on the detected transformation products, we proposed a degradation mechanism reflecting HTC reactions such as dehydroxylation and decarboxylation.

Pharmaceutical load in sewage sludge and biochar produced by hydrothermal carbonization

We investigated the removal of twelve pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge by hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), which has emerged as a technology for improving the quality of organic waste materials producing a valuable biochar material. In this study, the HTC converted sewage sludge samples to a biochar product within 4h at a temperature of 210 °C and a resulting pressure of about 15 bar. Initial pharmaceutical load of the sewage sludge was investigated as well as the residual concentrations in biochar produced from spiked and eight native sewage sludge samples from three waste water treatment plants. Additionally, the solid contents of source material and product were compared, which showed a considerable increase of the solid content after filtration by HTC. All pharmaceuticals except sulfamethoxazole, which remained below the limit of quantification, frequently occurred in the investigated sewage sludges in the μg/kg dry matter (DM) range. Diclofenac, carbamazepine, metoprolol and propranolol were detected in all sludge samples with a maximum concentration of 800 μg/kgDM for metoprolol. HTC was investigated regarding its contaminant removal efficiency using spiked sewage sludge. Pharmaceutical concentrations were reduced for seven compounds by 39% (metoprolol) to≥97% (carbamazepine). In native biochar samples the four compounds phenazone, carbamazepine, metoprolol and propranolol were detected, which confirmed that the HTC process can reduce the load of micropollutants. In contrast to the other investigated compounds phenazone concentration increased, which was further addressed in thermal behaviour studies including three structurally similar potential precursors.

Removal of APIs and bacteria from hospital wastewater by MBR plus O(3), O(3) + H(2)O(2), PAC or ClO(2)

The objective of this study has been to develop technologies that can reduce the content of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and bacteria from hospital wastewater. The results from the laboratory- and pilot-scale testings showed that efficient removal of the vast majority of APIs could be achieved by a membrane bioreactor (MBR) followed by ozone, ozone + hydrogen peroxide or powdered activated carbon (PAC). Chlorine dioxide (ClO(2)) was significantly less effective. MBR + PAC (450 mg/l) was the most efficient technology, while the most cost-efficient technology was MBR + ozone (156 mg O(3)/l applied over 20 min). With MBR an efficient removal of Escherichia coli and enterococci was measured, and no antibiotic resistant bacteria were detected in the effluent. With MBR + ozone and MBR + PAC also the measured effluent concentrations of APIs (e.g. ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole and sulfamethizole) were below available predicted no-effect concentrations (PNEC) for the marine environment without dilution. Iodinated contrast media were also reduced significantly (80-99% for iohexol, iopromide and ioversol and 40-99% for amidotrizoateacid). A full-scale MBR treatment plant with ozone at a hospital with 900 beds is estimated to require an investment cost of €1.6 mill. and an operating cost of €1/m(3) of treated water.

Chemical and toxicological evaluation of transformation products during advanced oxidation processes

The entry of pharmaceuticals into the water cycle from sewage treatment plants is of growing concern because environmental effects are evident at trace levels. Ozonation, UV- and UV/H(2)O(2)-treatment were tested as an additional step in waste water treatment because they have been proven to be effective in eliminating aqueous organic contaminants. The pharmaceuticals carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, diclofenac, metoprolol and sulfamethoxazole as well as the personal care products galaxolide and tonalide were investigated in terms of degradation efficiency and by-product formation in consideration of toxic effects. The substances were largely removed from treatment plant effluent by ozonation, UV- and UV/H(2)O(2)-treatment. Transformation products were detected in all tested treatment processes. Accompanying analysis showed no genotoxic, cytotoxic or estrogenic potential for the investigated compounds after oxidative treatment of real waste waters. The results indicate that by-product formation from ozonation and advanced oxidation processes does not have any negative environmental impact.

Application and assessment of a regular environmental monitoring of the antineoplastic drug contamination level in pharmacies - the MEWIP project

A large-scale study was carried out in order to determine the contamination level of antineoplastic drugs in pharmacies and to investigate the suitability and effects of wipe sample monitoring at regular intervals. A specific study design was developed. The 130 participating pharmacies were divided into a study and a control group, carrying out five and two wipe sampling cycles, respectively. The work practice was analyzed using questionnaires to identify factors that influence the contamination level. From 1269 wipe samples, 774 (61%) were contaminated with at least one of the analyzed cytotoxic drugs: cyclophosphamide, docetaxel, etoposide, 5-fluorouracil, gemcitabine, ifosfamide, methotrexate, and paclitaxel. A significant decrease of the contamination with cyclophosphamide and 5-fluorouracil was observed in the study group. The Monitoring-Effect Study of Wipe Sampling in Pharmacies method has proven to be a reliable and affordable tool for contamination control. Based on the 90th percentile of the contamination values, a substance-independent performance-based guidance value of 0.1ng cm(-2) has been derived.

Ozonation products of triclosan in advanced wastewater treatment

Triclosan is an antimicrobial agent widely used in many household and personal care products. Widespread use of this compound has led to the elevated concentrations of triclosan in wastewater, wastewater treatment plants and receiving waters. In this study removal of triclosan by aqueous ozone was investigated and the degradation products formed during ozonation of an aqueous solution of triclosan were analyzed by GC-MS and HPLC-MS/MS. The following transformation products have been identified: 2,4-dichlorophenol, chloro-catecol, mono-hydroxy-triclosan and di-hydroxy-triclosan during treatment process. Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of pure triclosan and 2,4-dichlorophenol have been investigated and the results showed reduced genotoxic effects after ozonation, though the respective chlorophenol is harmful to aquatic organisms.

Determination of polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) degradation products in fuel cell water using electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Within the scope of research of membrane degradation phenomena during fuel cell operation a reliable analytical procedure for the extraction, detection and quantification of possible membrane oxidation products has been developed. These oxidation products originate from the attack of hydroxyl or peroxyl radicals on the membrane polymer. Such radicals are formed in situ (during fuel cell operation) or ex situ (Fenton test as oxidative stress simulation). The analysis of membrane oxidation products was carried out by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Five potential membrane oxidation products (4-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HBA), 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (4-HBAD), 4,4-biphenol (4,4-BP), 4-hydroxybenzenesulfonate (4-HBS), and 4,4-sulfonylbiphenol (4,4-SBP)) were selected based on the molecular structure of the sulfonated polyarylether membrane used. In conjunction with the development of a multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) method, the ionization and fragmentation of the selected compounds were investigated. For 4,4-BP a molecular ion (M(+•) ) was observed in the positive ionization mode and used for MRM method development. Reproducible extraction of the model compounds was achieved using a mixed-mode sorbent material with both weak anion-exchange and reversed-phase retention properties. By using the developed analytical procedure, the identities of two membrane degradation products (4-HBA and 4-HBAD) were determined in situ and ex situ. In addition to the investigation of membrane degradation phenomena, the combination of extraction on a mixed-mode sorbent material and tandem mass spectrometric detection is attractive for the analysis of aromatic sulfonic acids, phenolic acids and phenols.

Efficiency, costs and benefits of AOPs for removal of pharmaceuticals from the water cycle

Different advanced oxidation processes (AOP) were developed for the treatment of highly loaded wastewater streams. Optimisation of removal and improvement of efficiency were carried out on a laboratory, semiworks and pilot plant scale. The persistent cytostatic drug cyclophosphamide was selected as a reference substance regarding elimination and evaluation of the various oxidation processes because of its low degradability rate. The investigated processes are cost-efficient and suitable regarding the treatment of wastewater streams since they lead to efficient elimination of antibiotics and antineoplastics. A total reduction of toxicity was proven by means of the umuC-test. However, in order to reduce pharmaceuticals from the water cycle, it must be considered that the input of more than 80 % of the pharmaceuticals entering wastewater treatment systems results from private households. Therefore, advanced technologies should also be installed at wastewater treatment plants.

Degradation and elimination of various sulfonamides during anaerobic fermentation: a promising step on the way to sustainable pharmacy?

Antibiotics, most notably sulfonamides and tetracyclines, are frequently used veterinary pharmaceuticals in animal husbandry. A new field of application for animal manure is in biogas plants for generating environmentally friendly energy. As a result, antibiotics contained in manure may still reach the environment as fermentation residues are also used on agricultural fields as fertilizers. Therefore, in fermentation tests seven sulfonamides and trimethoprim were investigated regarding their elimination behavior during a five-week fermentation process. Sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfadimethoxine, and trimethoprim were nearly completely eliminated while sulfathiazole, sulfamethazine, and sulfamethoxypyridazine showed persistence. For sulfadiazine it was possible by means of mass spectrometry to identify and partly quantify a metabolite, emerging from a hydroxylation at the pyrimidine ring, 4-OH-sulfadiazine. Furthermore, a microbial inhibition test showed a substantial reduction in the antimicrobial activity of the metabolite compared to the parent compound. Thus, the fermentation process may be an efficientwayto reduce the load of selected veterinary antibiotics finding their way into the environment Degradable drugs such as sulfadiazine may therefore, at least in the aspect of residual antibiotic activity of metabolites, be considered as environmentally friendly drugs.

Oxidation of diclofenac with ozone in aqueous solution

Ozonation of diclofenac in aqueous solution in the presence and absence of an *OH scavenger, tertiary butanol (t-BuOH), was studied, and the most important reaction intermediates and products were identified. The second-order O3 rate constantwas determined by competition with buten-3-ol and was found to be 6.8 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1) at 20 degrees C. From this high rate constant, it has been concluded that O3 must initially add on the amino nitrogen. Decomposition of the adduct results in the formation of O3*- (--> *OH) and aminyl radical precursors. A free *OH yield of 30% was estimated based on the HCHO yields generated upon reaction of *OH with 0.01 M t-BuOH. Almost all diclofenac reacted when the molar ratio of O3/diclofenac was approximately 5:1 in the presence of t-BuOH and approximately 8:1 in its absence. As primary reaction products (maximum yield), diclofenac-2,5-iminoquinone (32%), 5-hydroxydiclofenac (7%), and 2,6-dichloroaniline (19%) were detected with respect to reacted diclofenac in the presence of t-BuOH. These primary products degraded into secondary ones when the O3 dose was increased. In the *OH-mediated reaction (absence of t-BuOH) small yields of 5-hydroxydiclofenac (4.5%), diclofenac-2,5-iminoquinone (2.7%), and 2,6-dichloroaniline (6%) resulted. Practically all Cl- (95%) was released in the absence of t-BuOH but only about 45% in the presence of t-BuOH at an O3/diclofenac molar ratio of 10: 1. Based on the reaction products, mechanisms that may account for the high O3 consumption during ozonation of diclofenac are suggested. For technical applications, adequate supply of O3 is needed not only to eliminate diclofenac, but also for the degradation of its potentially toxic products like diclofenac-2,5-iminoquinone and 5-hydroxydiclofenac.

Temperature stability of reversed phase and normal phase stationary phases under aqueous conditions

In this study the temperature stability of several normal phase and RP columns was investigated using a water-only mobile phase. The temperature was adjusted to 120 degrees C for the bare silica stationary phases and to 185 degrees C for the metal oxide and carbon stationary phases. It could be shown that metal oxide stationary phases exhibited excellent thermal stability over the duration of the test period and are therefore suitable for high temperature LC applications.

Inhalation and dermal exposure to eight antineoplastic drugs in an industrial laundry facility

OBJECTIVES

The aims of the study were to quantify levels of dermal and inhalation exposure to antineoplastic drugs in an industrial laundry service in the Netherlands and to test the removal efficiency of the washing procedure for removal of antineoplastic drugs.

METHODS

During four workdays dermal and inhalation exposure to eight frequently used antineoplastic drugs (cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, etoposide, cytarabine, gemcitabine and chlorambucil) were measured for all job titles involved in handling unwashed laundry. To test the removal efficiency of the washing procedure, 10 x 10 cm sections were excised before and after the washing procedure. These sections were taken from 15 bed sheets that were collected in hospitals of patients who were treated with one of the selected antineoplastic drugs.

RESULTS

During none of the four measurement days, detectable levels of any of the eight antineoplastic drugs (cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, etoposide, cytarabine, gemcitabine, or chlorambucil) were found on workers' skin of hands or in any of the air samples. Only four out of the 15 bed sheets from patients that were treated with antineoplastic drugs appeared to be contaminated with detectable levels of antineoplastic drugs before the washing procedure (range 13.0-3,060 ng/100 cm(2)). After the pre-washing and after the complete washing procedure, no detectable levels of any of the eight antineoplastic drugs were found anymore in the selected bed sheets.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of guidelines for working with antineoplastic drugs seems to be successful in reducing exposure to antineoplastic drugs of workers in this laundry facility to an acceptable, non-detectable level and to remove antineoplastic drug contamination from bed linen.

Evaluation of column bleed by using an ultraviolet and a charged aerosol detector coupled to a high-temperature liquid chromatographic system

In this study, five different HPLC columns were heated to 200 degrees C using a homemade heating system which can be operated in temperature programmed mode. The column bleed as an indicator of induced degradation of the stationary phase material was evaluated using a charged aerosol detector (CAD) and an ultraviolet diode array detector (UV-DAD) at different wavelengths. The silica based C-18 stationary phase gave the highest bleed, and the carbon clad titanium dioxide column the lowest bleed. This was independent of both the detection technique and the wavelength.

Development and application of a specially designed heating system for temperature-programmed high-performance liquid chromatography using subcritical water as the mobile phase

A specially designed heating system for temperature-programmed HPLC was developed based on experimental measurements of eluent temperature inside a stainless steel capillary using a very thin thermocouple. The heating system can be operated at temperatures up to 225 degrees C and consists of a preheating, a column heating and a cooling unit. Fast cycle times after a temperature gradient can be realized by an internal silicone oil bath which cools down the preheating and column heating unit. Long-term thermal stability of a polybutadiene-coated zirconium dioxide column has been evaluated using a tubular oven in which the column was placed. The packing material was stable after 50h of operation at 185 degrees C. A mixture containing four steroids was separated at ambient conditions using a mobile phase of 25% acetonitrile:75% deionized water and a mobile phase of pure deionized water at 185 degrees C using the specially designed heating system and the PBD column. Analysis time could be drastically reduced from 17 min at ambient conditions and a flow rate of 1 mL/min to only 1.2 min at 185 degrees C and a flow rate of 5 mL/min. At these extreme conditions, no thermal mismatch was observed and peaks were not distorted, thus underlining the performance of the developed heating system. Temperature programming was performed by separating cytostatic and antibiotic drugs with a temperature gradient using only water as the mobile phase. In contrast to an isocratic elution of this mixture at room temperature, overall analysis time could be reduced two-fold from 20 to 10 min.