Tumor-Targeted Nanomedicine for Immunotherapy

Smart delivery vehicles for cancer: categories, unique roles and therapeutic strategies

Chemotherapy and surgery remain the primary treatment modalities for cancers; however, these techniques have drawbacks, such as cancer recurrence and toxic side effects, necessitating more efficient cancer treatment strategies. Recent advancements in research and medical technology have provided novel insights and expanded our understanding of cancer development; consequently, scholars have investigated several delivery vehicles for cancer therapy to improve the efficiency of cancer treatment and patient outcomes. Herein, we summarize several types of smart therapeutic carriers and elaborate on the mechanism underlying drug delivery. We reveal the advantages of smart therapeutic carriers for cancer treatment, focus on their effectiveness in cancer immunotherapy, and discuss the application of smart cancer therapy vehicles in combination with other emerging therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Finally, we summarize the bottlenecks encountered in the development of smart cancer therapeutic vehicles and suggest directions for future research. This review will promote progress in smart cancer therapy and facilitate related research.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymersomes: Reshaping the Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment

The progression of cancer involves mutations in normal cells, leading to uncontrolled division and tissue destruction, highlighting the complexity of tumor microenvironments (TMEs). Immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative approach, yet the balance between efficacy and safety remains a challenge. Nanoparticles such as polymersomes offer the possibility to precisely target tumors, deliver drugs in a controlled way, effectively modulate the antitumor immunity, and notably reduce side effects. Herein, stimuli-responsive polymersomes, with capabilities for carrying multiple therapeutics, are highlighted for their potential in enhancing antitumor immunity through mechanisms like inducing immunogenic cell death and activating STING (stimulator of interferon genes), etc. The recent progress of utilizing stimuli-responsive polymersomes to reshape the TME is reviewed here. The advantages and limitations to applied stimuli-responsive polymersomes are outlined. Additionally, challenges and future prospects in leveraging polymersomes for cancer therapy are discussed, emphasizing the need for future research and clinical translation.

Rare Earth Nanoprobes for Targeted Delineation of Triple Negative Breast Cancer and Enhancement of Radioimmunotherapy

Radiotherapy demonstrates a synergistic effect with immunotherapy by inducing a transformation of "immune cold" tumors into "immune hot" tumors in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of immunotherapy is constrained by low expression of tumor-exposed antigens, inadequate inflammation, and insufficient tumor infiltrating lymphocyte (TILs). To address this predicament, novel lutecium-based rare earth nanoparticles (RENPs) are synthesized with the aim of amplifying radiation effect and tumor immune response. The nanoprobe is characterized by neodymium-based down-conversion fluorescence, demonstrating robust photostability, biocompatibility, and targetability. The conjugation of RENPs with a CXCR4 targeted drug enables precise delineation of breast tumors using a near-infrared imaging system and improves radiation efficacy via lutetium-based radio-sensitizer in vivo. Furthermore, the study shows a notable enhancement of immune response through the induction of immunogenic cell death and recruitment of TILs, resulting in the inhibition of tumor progression both in vitro and in vivo models following the administration of nanoparticles. Hence, the novel multifunctional nanoprobes incorporating various lanthanide elements offer the potential for imaging-guided tumor delineation, radio-sensitization, and immune activation post-radiation, thus presenting an efficient radio-immunotherapeutic approach for TNBC.

Conformation-Switchable Polypeptides as Molecular Gates for Controllable Drug Release

The control over secondary structure has been widely studied to regulate the properties of polypeptide materials, which is used to change their functions in situ for various biomedical applications. Herein, we designed and constructed enzyme-responsive polypeptides as gating materials for mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), which underwent a distorted structure-to-helix transition to promote the release of encapsulated drugs. The polypeptide conjugated on the MSN surface adopted a negatively charged, distorted, flexible conformation, covering the pores of MSN to prevent drug leakage. Upon triggering by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) overproduced by tumor cells, the polypeptide transformed into positively charged, α-helical, rigid conformation with potent membrane-penetrating capabilities, which protruded from the MSN surface to uncover the pores. Such a transition thus enabled cancer-selective drug release and cellular internalization to efficiently kill tumor cells. This study highlights the important role of chain flexibility in modulating the biological function of polypeptides and provides a new application paradigm for synthetic polypeptides with secondary-structure transition.

Synergistic Brilliance: Engineered Bacteria and Nanomedicine Unite in Cancer Therapy

Engineered bacteria are widely used in cancer treatment because live facultative/obligate anaerobes can selectively proliferate at tumor sites and reach hypoxic regions, thereby causing nutritional competition, enhancing immune responses, and producing anticancer microbial agents in situ to suppress tumor growth. Despite the unique advantages of bacteria-based cancer biotherapy, the insufficient treatment efficiency limits its application in the complete ablation of malignant tumors. The combination of nanomedicine and engineered bacteria has attracted increasing attention owing to their striking synergistic effects in cancer treatment. Engineered bacteria that function as natural vehicles can effectively deliver nanomedicines to tumor sites. Moreover, bacteria provide an opportunity to enhance nanomedicines by modulating the TME and producing substrates to support nanomedicine-mediated anticancer reactions. Nanomedicine exhibits excellent optical, magnetic, acoustic, and catalytic properties, and plays an important role in promoting bacteria-mediated biotherapies. The synergistic anticancer effects of engineered bacteria and nanomedicines in cancer therapy are comprehensively summarized in this review. Attention is paid not only to the fabrication of nanobiohybrid composites, but also to the interpromotion mechanism between engineered bacteria and nanomedicine in cancer therapy. Additionally, recent advances in engineered bacteria-synergized multimodal cancer therapies are highlighted.

Recent advances of ultrasound-responsive nanosystems in tumor immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment by boosting the immune system and preventing disease escape mechanisms. Despite its potential, challenges like limited response rates and adverse immune effects impede its widespread clinical adoption. Ultrasound (US), known for its safety and effectiveness in tumor diagnosis and therapy, has been shown to significantly enhance immunotherapy when used with nanosystems. High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) can obliterate tumor cells and elicit immune reactions through the creation of immunogenic debris. Low-intensity focused ultrasound (LIFU) bolsters tumor immunosuppression and mitigates metastasis risk by concentrating dendritic cells. Ultrasonic cavitation (UC) produces microbubbles that can transport immune enhancers directly, thus strengthening the immune response and therapeutic impact. Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) merges nanotechnology with immunotherapy, using specialized sonosensitizers to kill cancer cells and stimulate immune responses, increasing treatment success. This review discusses the integration of ultrasound-responsive nanosystems in tumor immunotherapy, exploring future opportunities and current hurdles.

Chemokine systems in oncology: From microenvironment modulation to nanocarrier innovations

Over the past few decades, significant strides have been made in understanding the pivotal roles that chemokine networks play in tumor biology. These networks, comprising chemokines and their receptors, wield substantial influence over cancer immune regulation and therapeutic outcomes. As a result, targeting these chemokine systems has emerged as a promising avenue for cancer immunotherapy. However, therapies targeting chemokines face significant challenges in solid tumor treatment, due to the complex and fragile of the chemokine networks. A nuanced comprehension of the complicacy and functions of chemokine networks, and their impact on the tumor microenvironment, is essential for optimizing their therapeutic utility in oncology. This review elucidates the ways in which chemokine networks interact with cancer immunity and tumorigenesis. We particularly elaborate on recent innovations in manipulating these networks for cancer treatment. The review also highlights future challenges and explores potential biomaterial strategies for clinical applications.

Nanomedicine Targeting Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Enhances Anti-Tumor Immunity

Cancer immunotherapy, a field within immunology that aims to enhance the host's anti-cancer immune response, frequently encounters challenges associated with suboptimal response rates. The presence of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), crucial constituents of the tumor microenvironment (TME), exacerbates this issue by fostering immunosuppression and impeding T cell differentiation and maturation. Consequently, targeting MDSCs has emerged as crucial for immunotherapy aimed at enhancing anti-tumor responses. The development of nanomedicines specifically designed to target MDSCs aims to improve the effectiveness of immunotherapy by transforming immunosuppressive tumors into ones more responsive to immune intervention. This review provides a detailed overview of MDSCs in the TME and current strategies targeting these cells. Also the benefits of nanoparticle-assisted drug delivery systems, including design flexibility, efficient drug loading, and protection against enzymatic degradation, are highlighted. It summarizes advances in nanomedicine targeting MDSCs, covering enhanced treatment efficacy, safety, and modulation of the TME, laying the groundwork for more potent cancer immunotherapy.

A multifunctional CaCO3 bioreactor coated with coordination polymers enhances cancer immunotherapy

Designing effective nanomedicines to induce durable anti-tumor immunity represents a promising strategy for improving moderate immune stimulation. In this study, we engineered a multifunctional nanoreactor (named SCGFP NPs) for remodeling the tumor microenvironment (TME) to improve the therapeutic efficacy of immunotherapy. The core of SCGFP NPs consists of CaCO3 loaded with SN38, prepared by the gas diffusion method, and coated with a significant amount of gallic acid-Fe3+-PEG coordination polymer on the surface. In the acidic TME, SCGFP NPs explosively release exogenous Ca2+ and SN38. The SN38-induced intracellular Ca2+ accumulation and exogenous Ca2+ synergistically trigger immunogenic cell death (ICD) through sustained Ca2+ overload. The ablation of tumors with high-intensity photothermal therapy (PTT) by near-infrared (NIR) irradiation of GA-Fe3+ induces tumor cell necrosis, further enhancing ICD activation. Additionally, SN38 upregulates PD-L1, amplifying tumor responsiveness to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). This study indicates that SCGFP NPs, through the integration of a trimodal therapeutic strategy, hold enormous potential for various types of tumor immunotherapy through distinct mechanisms or synergistic effects.

Nanomedicines for reversing immunosuppressive microenvironment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Although immunotherapeutic strategies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have gained promising advances, their limited efficacy and significant toxicity remain great challenges for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) immunotherapy. The tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment (TIME) with insufficient T-cell infiltration and low immunogenicity accounts for most HCC patients' poor response to ICIs. Worse still, the current immunotherapeutics without precise delivery may elicit enormous autoimmune side effects and systemic toxicity in the clinic. With a better understanding of the TIME in HCC, nanomedicines have emerged as an efficient strategy to achieve remodeling of the TIME and superadditive antitumor effects via targeted delivery of immunotherapeutics or multimodal synergistic therapy. Based on the typical characteristics of the TIME in HCC, this review summarizes the recent advancements in nanomedicine-based strategies for TIME-reversing HCC treatment. Additionally, perspectives on the awaiting challenges and opportunities of nanomedicines in modulating the TIME of HCC are presented. Acquisition of knowledge of nanomedicine-mediated TIME reversal will provide researchers with a better opportunity for clinical translation of HCC immunotherapy.

State of the art in pediatric nanomedicines

In recent years, the continuous development of innovative nanopharmaceuticals is expanding their biomedical and clinical applications. Nanomedicines are being revolutionized to circumvent the limitations of unbound therapeutic agents as well as overcome barriers posed by biological interfaces at the cellular, organ, system, and microenvironment levels. In many ways, the use of nanoconfigured delivery systems has eased challenges associated with patient differences, and in our opinion, this forms the foundation for their potential usefulness in developing innovative medicines and diagnostics for special patient populations. Here, we present a comprehensive review of nanomedicines specifically designed and evaluated for disease management in the pediatric population. Typically, the pediatric population has distinguishing needs relative to those of adults majorly because of their constantly growing bodies and age-related physiological changes, which often need specialized drug formulation interventions to provide desirable therapeutic effects and outcomes. Besides, child-centric drug carriers have unique delivery routes, dosing flexibility, organoleptic properties (e.g., taste, flavor), and caregiver requirements that are often not met by traditional formulations and can impact adherence to therapy. Engineering pediatric medicines as nanoconfigured structures can potentially resolve these limitations stemming from traditional drug carriers because of their unique capabilities. Consequently, researchers from different specialties relentlessly and creatively investigate the usefulness of nanomedicines for pediatric disease management as extensively captured in this compilation. Some examples of nanomedicines covered include nanoparticles, liposomes, and nanomicelles for cancer; solid lipid and lipid-based nanostructured carriers for hypertension; self-nanoemulsifying lipid-based systems and niosomes for infections; and nanocapsules for asthma pharmacotherapy.

Diverse drug delivery systems for the enhancement of cancer immunotherapy: an overview

Despite the clear benefits demonstrated by immunotherapy, there is still an inevitable off-target effect resulting in serious adverse immune reactions. In recent years, the research and development of Drug Delivery System (DDS) has received increased prominence. In decades of development, DDS has demonstrated the ability to deliver drugs in a precisely targeted manner to mitigate side effects and has the advantages of flexible control of drug release, improved pharmacokinetics, and drug distribution. Therefore, we consider that combining cancer immunotherapy with DDS can enhance the anti-tumor ability. In this paper, we provide an overview of the latest drug delivery strategies in cancer immunotherapy and briefly introduce the characteristics of DDS based on nano-carriers (liposomes, polymer nano-micelles, mesoporous silica, extracellular vesicles, etc.) and coupling technology (ADCs, PDCs and targeted protein degradation). Our aim is to show readers a variety of drug delivery platforms under different immune mechanisms, and analyze their advantages and limitations, to provide more superior and accurate targeting strategies for cancer immunotherapy.

Dendritic Nanomedicine with Boronate Bonds for Augmented Chemo-Immunotherapy via Synergistic Modulation of Tumor Immune Microenvironment

Unsatisfied tumor accumulation of chemotherapeutic drugs and a complicated immunosuppressive microenvironment diminish the immune response rate and the therapeutic effect. Surface modification of these drugs with target ligands can promote their cellular internalization, but the modified drugs may be subjected to unexpected immune recognition and clearance. Herein, a phenylboronic acid (PBA) group-shieldable dendritic nanomedicine that integrates an immunogenic cell death (ICD)-inducing agent (epirubicin, Epi) and an indoleamine 2,3-dioxgenase 1 (IDO1) inhibitor (NLG919) is reported for tumor chemo-immunotherapy. This NLG919-loaded Epi-conjugated PEGylated dendrimers bridged with boronate bonds (NLG919@Epi-DBP) maintains a stable nanostructure during circulation. Under a moderate acidic condition, the PBA group exposes to the sialic acid residue on the tumor cell membrane to enhance the internalization and penetration of NLG919@Epi-DBP. At pH 5.0, NLG919@Epi-DBP rapidly disassembles to release the incorporated Epi and NLG919. Epi triggers robust ICD of tumor cells that evokes strong immune response. In addition, inhibition of the IDO1 activity downregulates the metabolism of L-tryptophan to kynurenine, leading to a reduction in the recruitment of immunosuppressive cells and modulation of the tumor immune microenvironment. Collectively, this promising strategy has been demonstrated to evoke robust immune response as well as remodel the immunosuppressive microenvironment for an enhanced chemo-immunotherapeutic effect.

Nanomedicine Combats Drug Resistance in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the second most prevalent cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Surgery, chemotherapy, molecular targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy are currently available as treatment methods. However, drug resistance is a significant factor in the failure of lung cancer treatments. Novel therapeutics have been exploited to address complicated resistance mechanisms of lung cancer and the advancement of nanomedicine is extremely promising in terms of overcoming drug resistance. Nanomedicine equipped with multifunctional and tunable physiochemical properties in alignment with tumor genetic profiles can achieve precise, safe, and effective treatment while minimizing or eradicating drug resistance in cancer. Here, this work reviews the discovered resistance mechanisms for lung cancer chemotherapy, molecular targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy, and outlines novel strategies for the development of nanomedicine against drug resistance. This work focuses on engineering design, customized delivery, current challenges, and clinical translation of nanomedicine in the application of resistant lung cancer.

Ultrasound-Responsive Micelle-Encapsulated Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived EVs for the Treatment of Lower Limb Microcirculation Disease

Lower limb microcirculatory ischemic disease is a vascular disorder primarily characterized by limb pain, gangrene, and potential amputation. It can be caused by various factors, such as hyperglycemia, atherosclerosis, and infection. Due to the extremely narrow luminal diameter in lower limb microcirculatory ischemic lesions, both surgical and medical interventions face challenges in achieving satisfactory therapeutic outcomes within the microvessels. Extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs-EVs) exhibit promising potential in the treatment of microcirculation ischemic lesions due to their small size and ability to promote angiogenesis. After undergoing substantial losses during the process of EVs transportation, only a minimal fraction of EVs can effectively reach the site of microcirculatory lesions, thereby compromising the therapeutic efficacy for microcirculatory disorders. Herein, an ultrasound-responsive system utilizing 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate-b-2-tetrahydropyranyl methacrylate (DMAEMA-b-THPMA) micelles to encapsulate MSCs-EVs has been successfully constructed, with the aim of achieving localized and targeted release of EVs at the site of microcirculatory lesions. The reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization method facilitates the successful synthesis of diblock copolymers comprising monomer 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and monomer 2-tetrahydropyranyl methacrylate (THPMA). The DMAEMA-b-THPMA micelles exhibit a nanoscale structure, reliable biocompatibility, ultrasound responsiveness, and conspicuous protection of EVs. Furthermore, the implementation of low-energy-density ultrasound can enhance angiogenesis by upregulating the levels of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In in vivo experiments, the ultrasound-responsive system of the DMAEMA-b-THPMA micelles and MSCs-EVs synergistically enhances therapeutic efficacy by promoting angiogenesis, improving vascular permeability, and optimizing vascular. In conclusion, this work demonstrates bioapplication of an ultrasound-responsive micellar nanosystem loaded with EVs for the treatment of lower limb microcirculatory ischemic disorders.

Polymerizable 2-Propionic-3-methylmaleic Anhydrides as a Macromolecular Carrier Platform for pH-Responsive Immunodrug Delivery

The design of functional polymers coupled with stimuli-triggered drug release mechanisms is a promising achievement to overcome various biological barriers. pH trigger methods yield significant potential for controlled targeting and release of therapeutics due to their simplicity and relevance, especially upon cell internalization. Here, we introduce reactive polymers that conjugate primary or secondary amines and release potential drugs under acidic conditions. For that purpose, we introduced methacrylamide-based monomers with pendant 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride groups. Such groups allow the conjugation of primary and secondary amines but are resistant to radical polymerization conditions. We, therefore, polymerized 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride amide-based methacrylates via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Their amine-reactive anhydrides could sequentially be derivatized by primary or secondary amines into hydrophilic polymers. Acidic pH-triggered drug release from the polymeric systems was fine-tuned by comparing different amines. Thereby, the conjugation of primary amines led to the formation of irreversible imide bonds in dimethyl sulfoxide, while secondary amines could quantitatively be released upon acidification. In vitro, this installed pH-responsiveness can contribute to an effective release of conjugated immune stimulatory drugs under endosomal pH conditions. Interestingly, the amine-modified polymers generally showed no toxicity and a high cellular uptake. Furthermore, secondary amine-modified immune stimulatory drugs conjugated to the polymers yielded better receptor activity and immune cell maturation than their primary amine derivatives due to their pH-sensitive drug release mechanism. Consequently, 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride-based polymers can be considered as a versatile platform for pH-triggered delivery of various (immuno)drugs, thus enabling new strategies in macromolecule-assisted immunotherapy.

Multistage Self-Assembled Nanomaterials for Cancer Immunotherapy

Advances in nanotechnology have brought innovations to cancer therapy. Nanoparticle-based anticancer drugs have achieved great success from bench to bedside. However, insufficient therapy efficacy due to various physiological barriers in the body remains a key challenge. To overcome these biological barriers and improve the therapeutic efficacy of cancers, multistage self-assembled nanomaterials with advantages of stimuli-responsiveness, programmable delivery, and immune modulations provide great opportunities. In this review, we describe the typical biological barriers for nanomedicines, discuss the recent achievements of multistage self-assembled nanomaterials for stimuli-responsive drug delivery, highlighting the programmable delivery nanomaterials, in situ transformable self-assembled nanomaterials, and immune-reprogramming nanomaterials. Ultimately, we perspective the future opportunities and challenges of multistage self-assembled nanomaterials for cancer immunotherapy.

Current research trends of nanomedicines

Owing to the inherent shortcomings of traditional therapeutic drugs in terms of inadequate therapeutic efficacy and toxicity in clinical treatment, nanomedicine designs have received widespread attention with significantly improved efficacy and reduced non-target side effects. Nanomedicines hold tremendous theranostic potential for treating, monitoring, diagnosing, and controlling various diseases and are attracting an unfathomable amount of input of research resources. Against the backdrop of an exponentially growing number of publications, it is imperative to help the audience get a panorama image of the research activities in the field of nanomedicines. Herein, this review elaborates on the development trends of nanomedicines, emerging nanocarriers, in vivo fate and safety of nanomedicines, and their extensive applications. Moreover, the potential challenges and the obstacles hindering the clinical translation of nanomedicines are also discussed. The elaboration on various aspects of the research trends of nanomedicines may help enlighten the readers and set the route for future endeavors.

Antifouling polymers for nanomedicine and surfaces: recent advances

Antifouling polymers are materials that can resist nonspecific interactions with cells, proteins, and other biomolecules. Typically, they are hydrophilic polymers with polar or charged moieties that are capable of strong nonbonding interactions with water molecules. This propensity to bind water generates a surface hydration layer that reduces nonspecific interactions with other molecules and is paramount to the antifouling behavior. This property is especially useful for nanoscale applications such as nanomedicine and surface modifications at the molecular level. In nanomedicine, antifouling polymers such as poly(ethylene glycol) and its alternatives play a key role in shielding drug molecules and therapeutic proteins/genes from the immune system within nanoassemblies, thereby enabling effective delivery to target tissues. For coatings, antifouling polymers help to prevent adhesion of cells and molecules to surfaces and are thus valued in marine and biomedical device applications. In this Review, we survey recent advances in antifouling polymers in the context of nanomedicine and coatings, while shining the spotlight on the major polymer classes such as PEG, polyzwitterions, poly(oxazoline)s, and other nonionic hydrophilic polymers.

Potential targeting of the tumor microenvironment to improve cancer virotherapy

In 2015, oncolytic virotherapy was approved for clinical use, and in 2017, recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) delivery was also approved. However, systemic administration remains challenging due to the limited number of viruses that successfully reach the target site. Although the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) permits the use of higher doses of AAV to achieve greater rates of transduction, most AAV still accumulates in the liver, potentially leading to toxicity there and elsewhere. Targeting the tumor microenvironment is a promising strategy for cancer treatment due to the critical role of the tumor microenvironment in controlling tumor progression and influencing the response to therapies. Newly discovered evidence indicates that administration routes focusing on the tumor microenvironment can promote delivery specificity and transduction efficacy within the tumor. Here, we review approaches that involve modifying viral surface features, modulating the immune system, and targeting the physicochemical characteristics in tumor microenvironment to regulate therapeutic delivery. Targeting tumor acidosis presents advantages that can be leveraged to enhance virotherapy outcomes and to develop new therapeutic approaches that can be integrated with standard treatments.

Sequential Targeting Hybrid Nanovesicles Composed of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell-Derived Exosomes and Liposomes for Enhanced Cancer Immunochemotherapy

Paclitaxel (PTX)-based chemotherapy remains the main approach to treating lung cancer but systemic toxicity limits its use. As chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cell-derived exosomes contain tumor-targeted CARs and cytotoxic granules (granzyme B and perforin), they are considered potential delivery vehicles for PTX. However, the low drug-loading capacity and hepatotropic properties of exosomes are obstacles to their application to extrahepatic cancer. Here, a hybrid nanovesicle named Lip-CExo@PTX was designed for immunochemotherapy of lung cancer by fusing exosomes derived from bispecific CAR-T cells targeting both mesothelin (MSLN) and programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) with lung-targeted liposomes. Due to the lung-targeting ability of the liposomes, over 95% of intravenously administered Lip-CExo@PTX accumulated in lung tissue. In addition, with the help of the anti-MSLN single-chain variable fragment (scFv), the PTX and cytotoxic granules inside Lip-CExo@PTX were further delivered into MSLN-positive tumors. Notably, the anti-PD-L1 scFv on Lip-CExo@PTX blocked PD-L1 on the tumors to avoid T cell exhaustion and promoted PTX-induced immunogenic cell death. Furthermore, Lip-CExo@PTX prolonged the survival time of tumor-bearing mice in a CT-26 metastatic lung cancer model. Therefore, Lip-CExo@PTX may deliver PTX to tumor cells through sequential targeted delivery and enhance the antitumor effects, providing a promising strategy for immunochemotherapy of lung cancer.

Curbing Exosome Communications via Introducing Artificial Membrane Receptors for Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer Therapy

Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) carry various biomolecular cargos and play crucial roles in metastasis. TDEs migrate to distal organs for intercellular communication and induce the formation of pre-metastatic niches (PMNs) to support tumor implantation and proliferation. Precise interference in the bioprocess of TDEs is expected to be efficacious for suppressing tumor metastasis. However, targeting both TDEs and the primary tumor is challenging. Here, based on metabolic glycoengineering and bio-orthogonal click chemistry, a two-step delivery strategy is designed to overcome this. During the first step, the tetraacetylated N-azidoacetyl-d-mannosamine-loaded nanoparticle responds to the metabolic activity of tumor cells in the primary tumor, tagging both tumor cells and TDEs with azide groups; dibenzyl-cyclootyne-modified nanoparticles then can, as the second step, specifically react with tumor cells and TDEs through a bio-orthogonal click reaction. This strategy not only inhibits tumor growth in pancreatic cancer models but also curbs the communicative role of TDEs in inducing liver PMNs and metastasis by tracking and downregulating the exosomal macrophage migration inhibitory factor.

Nanoparticle-Mediated STING Activation for Cancer Immunotherapy

As the first line of host defense against pathogenic infections, innate immunity plays a key role in antitumor immunotherapy. The cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) (cGAS-STING) pathway has attracted much attention because of the secretion of various proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Many STING agonists have been identified and applied into preclinical or clinical trials for cancer immunotherapy. However, the fast excretion, low bioavailability, nonspecificity, and adverse effects of the small molecule STING agonists limit their therapeutic efficacy and in vivo application. Nanodelivery systems with appropriate size, charge, and surface modification are capable of addressing these dilemmas. In this review, the mechanism of the cGAS-STING pathway is discussed and the STING agonists, focusing on nanoparticle-mediated STING therapy and combined therapy for cancers, are summarized. Finally, the future direction and challenges of nano-STING therapy are expounded, emphasizing the pivotal scientific problems and technical bottlenecks and hoping to provide general guidance for its clinical application.

Ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction remodels tumour microenvironment to improve immunotherapeutic effect

Cancer immunotherapy (CIT) has gained increasing attention and made promising progress in recent years, especially immune checkpoint inhibitors such as antibodies blocking programmed cell death 1/programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4). However, its therapeutic efficacy is only 10-30% in solid tumours and treatment sensitivity needs to be improved. The complex tissue environment in which cancers originate is known as the tumour microenvironment (TME) and the complicated and dynamic TME is correlated with the efficacy of immunotherapy. Ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction (UTMD) is an emerging technology that integrates diagnosis and therapy, which has garnered much traction due to non-invasive, targeted drug delivery and gene transfection characteristics. UTMD has also been studied to remodel TME and improve the efficacy of CIT. In this review, we analyse the effects of UTMD on various components of TME, including CD8⁺ T cells, tumour-infiltrating myeloid cells, regulatory T cells, natural killer cells and tumour vasculature. Moreover, UTMD enhances the permeability of the blood-brain barrier to facilitate drug delivery, thus improving CIT efficacy in vivo animal experiments. Based on this, we highlight the potential of immunotherapy against various cancer species and the clinical application prospects of UTMD.

Ultrasound-Amplified Enzyodynamic Tumor Therapy by Perovskite Nanoenzyme-Enabled Cell Pyroptosis and Cascade Catalysis

Overcoming apoptosis resistance to achieve efficient breast cancer treatment remains a challenge. The precise induction of another form of programmed cell death, pyroptosis, is an excellent alternative for treating cancer. Ultrasound (US)-enhanced enzyme dynamic (enzyodynamic) therapy is developed by employing LaFeO₃ (LFO) perovskite nanocrystals as a substrate to increase the rate of deleterious reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation for intensive cell pyroptosis. LFO nanocrystals possess quadruple enzyme-mimicking activities, including oxidase-, peroxidase-, glutathione peroxidase-, and catalase-mimicking activities, which undertake the dominant therapeutic task through cascade catalytic reactions, including the reversal of hypoxic microenvironment, depletion of endogenous glutathione, and continuous output of ROS. US exogenous stimulation increases the transition rate of the intermediate complex to Fe (II) and favors incremental ROS production, by which the ROS burst-induced pyroptosis process is accomplished through the ROS-TXNIP-NLRP3-GSDMD pathway. Both in vitro and in vivo antineoplastic outcomes affirm the ascendancy of LFO nanozyme-induced pyroptosis. This work highlights the critical role of US coupled with nanocatalytic reactors in pyroptosis-dominant breast cancer treatment with the apoptosis resistance circumvention feature.

The roles of ERIANIN in tumor and innate immunity and its' perspectives in immunotherapy

Traditional Chinese medicine has been used in China for thousands of years. In 2022, the 14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine was released, aiming to enhance traditional Chinese medicine health services and improve policies and systems for high-quality traditional Chinese medicinal development by 2025. ERIANIN, the main component of the traditional Chinese medicine Dendrobium, plays an important role in anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antiangiogenic, and other pharmacological effects. ERIANIN has broad-spectrum antitumor effects, and its tumor-suppressive effects have been confirmed in the study of various diseases, such as precancerous lesions of the stomach, gastric cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer, osteosarcoma, colorectal cancer, leukaemia, nasopharyngeal cancer and melanoma through the multiple signaling pathways. Thus, the aim of this review was to systematically summarise the research on ERIANIN with the aim of serving as a reference for future research on this compound and briefly discuss some future perspectives development of ERIANIN in combined immunotherapy.

Recent advances in developing active targeting and multi-functional drug delivery systems via bioorthogonal chemistry

Bioorthogonal chemistry reactions occur in physiological conditions without interfering with normal physiological processes. Through metabolic engineering, bioorthogonal groups can be tagged onto cell membranes, which selectively attach to cargos with paired groups via bioorthogonal reactions. Due to its simplicity, high efficiency, and specificity, bioorthogonal chemistry has demonstrated great application potential in drug delivery. On the one hand, bioorthogonal reactions improve therapeutic agent delivery to target sites, overcoming off-target distribution. On the other hand, nanoparticles and biomolecules can be linked to cell membranes by bioorthogonal reactions, providing approaches to developing multi-functional drug delivery systems (DDSs). In this review, we first describe the principle of labeling cells or pathogenic microorganisms with bioorthogonal groups. We then highlight recent breakthroughs in developing active targeting DDSs to tumors, immune systems, or bacteria by bioorthogonal chemistry, as well as applications of bioorthogonal chemistry in developing functional bio-inspired DDSs (biomimetic DDSs, cell-based DDSs, bacteria-based and phage-based DDSs) and hydrogels. Finally, we discuss the difficulties and prospective direction of bioorthogonal chemistry in drug delivery. We expect this review will help us understand the latest advances in the development of active targeting and multi-functional DDSs using bioorthogonal chemistry and inspire innovative applications of bioorthogonal chemistry in developing smart DDSs for disease treatment.

Photoacoustic mediated multifunctional tumor antigen trapping nanoparticles inhibit the recurrence and metastasis of ovarian cancer by enhancing tumor immunogenicity

The hypoimmunogenicity of tumors is one of the main bottlenecks of cancer immunotherapy. Enhancing tumor immunogenicity can improve the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy by increasing antigen exposure and presentation, and establishing an inflammatory microenvironment. Here, a multifunctional antigen trapping nanoparticle with indocyanine green (ICG), aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)₃) and oxaliplatin (OXA) (PPIAO) has been developed for tumor photoacoustic/ultrasound dual-modality imaging and therapy. The combination of photothermal/photodynamic therapy and chemotherapy induced tumor antigen exposure and release through immunogenic death of tumor cells. A timely capture and storage of antigens by aluminum hydroxide enabled dendritic cells to recognize and present those antigens spatiotemporally. In an ovarian tumor model, the photoacoustic-mediated PPIAO NPs combination therapy achieved a transition from “cold tumor” to “hot tumor” that promoted more CD8⁺ T lymphocytes activation in vivo and intratumoral infiltration, and successfully inhibited the growth of primary and metastatic tumors. An in situ tumor vaccine effect was produced from the treated tumor tissue, assisting mice against the recurrence of tumor cells. This study provided a simple and effective personalized tumor vaccine strategy for better treatment of metastatic and recurrent tumors. The developed multifunctional tumor antigen trapping nanoparticles may be a promising nanoplatform for integrating multimodal imaging monitoring, tumor treatment, and tumor vaccine immunotherapy.

Nanomaterial-Based Drug Delivery Systems: A New Weapon for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, a major breakthrough in cancer treatment, has been successfully applied to treat a number of tumors. However, given the presence of factors in the tumor microenvironment (TME) that impede immunotherapy, only a small proportion of patients achieve a good clinical response. With the ability to increase permeability and cross biological barriers, nanomaterials have been successfully applied to deliver immunotherapeutic agents, thus realizing the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of therapeutic agents. This has driven a wave of research into systems for the delivery of immunotherapeutic agents, which has resulted in widespread interest in nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems are able to overcome the challenges from TME and thus achieve good results in cancer immunotherapy. If it can make a breakthrough in improving biocompatibility and reducing cytotoxicity, it will be more widely used in clinical practice. Different types of nanomaterials may also have some subtle differences in enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, delivery systems made of nanomaterials loaded with drugs, such as cytotoxic drugs, cytokines, and adjuvants, could be used for cancer immunotherapy because they avoid the toxicity and side effects associated with these drugs, thereby enabling their reuse. Therefore, further insights into nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems will provide more effective treatment options for cancer patients.

Injectable click-crosslinked hydrogel containing resveratrol to improve the therapeutic effect in triple negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients are considered intractable, as this disease has few effective treatments and a very poor prognosis even in its early stages. Here, intratumoral therapy with resveratrol (Res), which has anticancer and metastasis inhibitory effects, was proposed for the effective treatment of TNBC. An injectable Res-loaded click-crosslinked hyaluronic acid (Res-Cx-HA) hydrogel was designed and intratumorally injected to generate a Res-Cx-HA depot inside the tumor. The Res-Cx-HA formulation exhibited good injectability into the tumor tissue, quick depot formation inside the tumor, and the depot remained inside the injected tumor for extended periods. In vivo formed Res-Cx-HA depots sustained Res inside the tumor for extended periods. More importantly, the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of Res remained almost exclusively within the tumor and not in other organs. Intratumoral injection of Res-Cx-HA in animal models resulted in significant negative tumor growth rates (i.e., the tumor volume decreased over time) coupled with large apoptotic cells and limited angiogenesis in tumors. Therefore, Res-Cx-HA intratumoral injection is a promising way to treat TNBC patients with high efficacy and minimal adverse effects.

•

Intratumoral injection was developed for treatment of triple negative breast cancer.

•

Injectable formulation exhibited good injectability, quick depot formation.

•

The formed depot remained inside the injected tumor for extended periods.

•

Bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of Res inside tumor were improved.

•

In vivo formed depots resulted in significant negative cancer growth.

Optical magnetic multimodality imaging of plectin-1-targeted imaging agent for the precise detection of orthotopic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma in mice

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a lethal malignancy worldwide, and the precise detection is challenging currently. Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) is suitable for imaging deep and internal PDAC tumours because of its high sensitivity and unlimited imaging depth. The purpose of this study was to utilize the MPI, in combination with fluorescence molecular imaging (FMI) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to advance the in vivo precise detection of PDAC xenografts.

METHODS

The PDAC targeted plectin-1 peptide and IRDye800CW were conjugated to the superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (PTP-Fe3O4-IRDye800CW) for the PDAC-targeting triple-modality imaging. Subcutaneous and orthotopic PDAC mouse models were established. FMI, MPI, and MRI were performed for dynamic and quantitative observation of PDAC tumours. Histological staining analyses were used for ex vivo validation.

FINDINGS

PTP-Fe3O4-IRDye800CW nanoparticles possessed great triple-modality imaging performance and specific targeting to plectin-1 expressed on PDAC cells. For in vivo multi-modality imaging of orthotopic PDAC models, the PTP-Fe3O4-IRDye800CW nanoparticles demonstrated higher specificity, even distribution, and longer retention effects in tumours for over 7 d compared with Con-Fe3O4-IRDye800CW nanoparticles. (MPI, 2d post-injection: PTP-Fe3O4-IRDye800CW: 85.72% ± 1.53% vs. Con-Fe3O4-IRDye800CW: 74.41% ± 1.91%, **P < 0.01 (Student's t test)). Ex vivo histological and Prussian blue stainings were performed to validate the distribution of probes.

INTERPRETATION

These data demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing MPI for in vivo PDAC imaging and complement with FMI/MRI for a precise and comprehensive in vivo characterization of PDAC. This may benefit PDAC patients for precise diagnosis and guidance of therapy.

FUNDING

This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 62027901, 82071896, 81871422, 81871514, 81227901), Ministry of Science and Technology of China under Grant No. 2017YFA0205200, 2017YFA0700401, Beijing Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. 7212207), Elite Program of Dong Cheng District of Beijing (2020-dchrcpyzz-28), and Peking University Third Hospital (BYSYZD2019018, and jyzc2018-02).

Selenopeptide Nanomedicine Activates Natural Killer Cells for Enhanced Tumor Chemoimmunotherapy

Chemoimmunotherapy using nanotechnology has shown great potential for cancer therapy in the clinic. However, uncontrolled transportation and synergistic responses remain challenges. Here, a self-assembled selenopeptide nanoparticle that strengthens tumor chemoimmunotherapy through the activation of natural killer (NK) cells by the oxidative metabolite of the selenopeptide is developed. With the advantages of the enzyme-induced size-reduction and the reactive-oxygen-species-driven deselenization, this selenopeptide is able to deliver therapeutics, e.g., doxorubicin (DOX), to solid tumors and further activate the NK cells in a programmed manner. Importantly, in vitro and in vivo results prove the mutual promotion between the DOX-induced chemotherapy and the selenopeptide-induced immunotherapy, which synergistically contribute to the improved antitumor efficacy. It is anticipated that the selenopeptide may provide a type of promising stimuli-responsive immune modulator for versatile biomedical applications.

Targeted nanomedicine in cisplatin-based cancer therapeutics

Since its license in 1978, cisplatin has proved to be one of the most successful chemotherapeutic agents in the world. However, two acute challenges facing cisplatin, resistance and toxicity, have resulted in a bottleneck of clinical application. Targeted nanomedicine shows great promise in delivering cisplatin for maximizing efficacy while minimizing off-target toxicity. This article surveyed the recent progress and challenges of targeted nanomedicine in managing resistance and toxicity of cisplatin in both fundamental and clinical aspects. Particularly, we focused on three major mechanisms counteracting cisplatin sensitivity (decreased intracellular accumulation, increased cisplatin deactivation, and enhanced DNA repair/translesion synthesis) and correspondingly highlighted a few representative approaches to increase cisplatin sensitivity through improving the intracellular concentration of cisplatin and implementing combination therapy. Moreover, the requirements for future advancements in cisplatin delivery systems are rendered with emphasis on (i) understanding of nano-bio interaction and post-accumulation biological effects instead of overwhelmingly improving tumor accumulation, (ii) development of stimuli-responsive and/or actively-targeted nanomedicines, (iii) optimization of combination therapy, (iv) novel combinations targeting tumor microenvironment and immunotherapy. We postulate that cisplatin-based nanomedicines will continuously advance and potentially revolutionize oncological treatment.

Nanomedicine for brain cancer

CNS tumors remain among the deadliest forms of cancer, resisting conventional and new treatment approaches, with mortality rates staying practically unchanged over the past 30 years. One of the primary hurdles for treating these cancers is delivering drugs to the brain tumor site in therapeutic concentration, evading the blood-brain (tumor) barrier (BBB/BBTB). Supramolecular nanomedicines (NMs) are increasingly demonstrating noteworthy prospects for addressing these challenges utilizing their unique characteristics, such as improving the bioavailability of the payloadsviacontrolled pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, BBB/BBTB crossing functions, superior distribution in the brain tumor site, and tumor-specific drug activation profiles. Here, we review NM-based brain tumor targeting approaches to demonstrate their applicability and translation potential from different perspectives. To this end, we provide a general overview of brain tumor and their treatments, the incidence of the BBB and BBTB, and their role on NM targeting, as well as the potential of NMs for promoting superior therapeutic effects. Additionally, we discuss critical issues of NMs and their clinical trials, aiming to bolster the potential clinical applications of NMs in treating these life-threatening diseases.

Metal-free bioorthogonal click chemistry in cancer theranostics

Bioorthogonal chemistry is a powerful tool to site-specifically activate drugs in living systems. Bioorthogonal reactions between a pair of biologically reactive groups can rapidly and specifically take place in a mild physiological milieu without perturbing inherent biochemical processes. Attributed to their high selectivity and efficiency, bioorthogonal reactions can significantly decrease background signals in bioimaging. Compared with metal-catalyzed bioorthogonal click reactions, metal-free click reactions are more biocompatible without the metal catalyst-induced cytotoxicity. Although a great number of bioorthogonal chemistry-based strategies have been reported for cancer theranostics, a comprehensive review is scarce to highlight the advantages of these strategies. In this review, recent progress in cancer theranostics guided by metal-free bioorthogonal click chemistry will be depicted in detail. The elaborate design as well as the advantages of bioorthogonal chemistry in tumor theranostics are summarized and future prospects in this emerging field are emphasized.

Porous carbon nanoarchitectonics for the environment: detection and adsorption

As a post-nanotechnology concept, nanoarchitectonics has emerged from the 20th century to the 21st century. This review summarizes the recent progress in the field of metal-free porous carbon nanoarchitectonics.

Nanoplatform-mediated calcium overload for cancer therapy

Mitochondria, as the "the plant of power" of cells, have been extensively highlighted with biological functions of offering energy and participating in signaling pathways. In parallel, calcium (Ca2+) plays a...

Harnessing reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and inflammation: Nanodrugs for liver injury

Overall, 12% of the global population (800 million) suffers from liver disease, which causes 2 million deaths every year. Liver injury involving characteristic reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (RONS) and inflammation plays a key role in progression of liver disease. As a key metabolic organ of the human body, the liver is susceptible to injury from various sources, including COVID-19 infection. Owing to unique structural features and functions of the liver, most current antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs are limited against liver injury. However, the characteristics of the liver could be utilized in the development of nanodrugs to achieve specific enrichment in the liver and consequently targeted treatment. Nanodrugs have shown significant potential in eliminating RONS and regulating inflammation, presenting an attractive therapeutic tool for liver disease through controlling liver injury. Therefore, the main aim of the current review is to provide a comprehensive summary of the latest developments contributing to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying nanodrugs in the treatment of liver injury via harnessing RONS and inflammation. Meanwhile, the prospects of nanodrugs for liver injury therapy are systematically discussed, which provides a sound platform for novel therapeutic insights and inspiration for design of nanodrugs to treat liver disease.

Tumor-Microenvironment-Responsive Nanomedicine for Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy

The past decades have witnessed great progress in cancer immunotherapy, which has profoundly revolutionized oncology, whereas low patient response rates and potential immune-related adverse events remain major clinical challenges. With the advantages of controlled delivery and modular flexibility, cancer nanomedicine has offered opportunities to strengthen antitumor immune responses and to sensitize tumor to immunotherapy. Furthermore, tumor-microenvironment (TME)-responsive nanomedicine has been demonstrated to achieve specific and localized amplification of the immune response in tumor tissue in a safe and effective manner, increasing patient response rates to immunotherapy and reducing the immune-related side effects simultaneously. Here, the recent progress of TME-responsive nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy is summarized, which responds to the signals in the TME, such as weak acidity, reductive environment, high-level reactive oxygen species, hypoxia, overexpressed enzymes, and high-level adenosine triphosphate. Moreover, the potential to combine nanomedicine-based therapy and immunotherapeutic strategies to overcome each step of the cancer-immunity cycle and to enhance antitumor effects is discussed. Finally, existing challenges and further perspectives in this rising field with the hope for improved development of clinical applications are discussed.

A multifunctional nanoamplifier with self-enhanced acidity and hypoxia relief for combined photothermal/photodynamic/starvation therapy

Phototherapies, including photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) have been potential noninvasive therapeutic modality with high efficiency, however, there still exist some intrinsic limitations that impede their clinical applications. Herein, taking the advantages of the synergistic effect and high reactivity of manganese dioxide (MnO₂) nanosheets and glucose oxidase (GOx), multifunctional MPDA@MnO₂-MB-GOx nanoamplifier was constructed for enhanced PTT, PDT, and starvation therapy. In tumor microenvironment (TME), MnO₂ nanosheets on the surface of mesoporous polydopamine (MPDA) could react with endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and generate oxygen (O₂) to relieve tumor hypoxia, thus enhancing the efficacy of PDT and GOx catalysis. Glucose consumption under the catalysis of GOx will enhance the acidity of TME and increase intracellular H₂O₂ concentration, which in turn promotes the production of O₂ by MnO₂ nanosheets, thus forming efficient cascade reaction and maximizing the efficacy of the functional agents. Furthermore, the heat generated by MPDA under the irradiation of 808 nm laser can accelerate chemical reactions, thus further enhancing synergistic therapeutic efficacy. In vitro/vivo results emphasize that enhanced cancer cell death and tumor inhibition are gained by modulating unfavorable TME with the functional nanosystem, which highlights the promise of the synthesized MPDA@MnO₂-MB-GOx nanomaterial to overcome the limitations of phototherapy.

Targeted Delivery of mRNA with One-Component Ionizable Amphiphilic Janus Dendrimers

Targeted and efficient delivery of nucleic acids with viral and synthetic vectors is the key step of genetic nanomedicine. The four-component lipid nanoparticle synthetic delivery systems consisting of ionizable lipids, phospholipids, cholesterol, and a PEG-conjugated lipid, assembled by microfluidic or T-tube technology, have been extraordinarily successful for delivery of mRNA to provide Covid-19 vaccines. Recently, we reported a one-component multifunctional sequence-defined ionizable amphiphilic Janus dendrimer (IAJD) synthetic delivery system for mRNA relying on amphiphilic Janus dendrimers and glycodendrimers developed in our laboratory. Amphiphilic Janus dendrimers consist of functional hydrophilic dendrons conjugated to hydrophobic dendrons. Co-assembly of IAJDs with mRNA into dendrimersome nanoparticles (DNPs) occurs by simple injection in acetate buffer, rather than by microfluidic devices, and provides a very efficient system for delivery of mRNA to lung. Here we report the replacement of most of the hydrophilic fragment of the dendron from IAJDs, maintaining only its ionizable amine, while changing its interconnecting group to the hydrophobic dendron from amide to ester. The resulting IAJDs demonstrated that protonated ionizable amines play dual roles of hydrophilic fragment and binding ligand for mRNA, changing delivery from lung to spleen and/or liver. Replacing the interconnecting ester with the amide switched the delivery back to lung. Delivery predominantly to liver is favored by pairs of odd and even alkyl groups in the hydrophobic dendron. This simple structural change transformed the targeted delivery of mRNA mediated with IAJDs, from lung to liver and spleen, and expands the utility of DNPs from therapeutics to vaccines.

Ferritin: A Multifunctional Nanoplatform for Biological Detection, Imaging Diagnosis, and Drug Delivery

Ferritins are spherical iron storage proteins within cells that are composed of a combination of 24 subunits of two types, heavy-chain ferritin (HFn) and light-chain ferritin (LFn). They autoassemble naturally into a spherical hollow nanocage with an outer diameter of 12 nm and an interior cavity that is 8 nm in diameter. In recent years, with the constantly emerging safety issues and the concerns about unfavorable uniformity and indefinite in vivo behavior of traditional nanomedicines, the characteristics of native ferritin nanocages, such as the unique nanocage structure, excellent safety profile, and definite in vivo behavior, make ferritin-based formulations uniquely attractive for nanomedicine development. To date, a variety of cargo molecules, including therapeutic drugs (e.g., cisplatin, carboplatin, paclitaxel, curcumin, atropine, quercetin, gefitinib, daunomycin, epirubicin, doxorubicin, etc.), imaging agents (e.g., fluorescence dyes, radioisotopes, and MRI contrast agents), nucleic acids (e.g., siRNA and miRNA), and metal nanoparticles (e.g., Fe₃O₄, CeO₂, AuPd, CuS, CoPt, FeCo, Ag, etc.) have been loaded into the interior cavity of ferritin nanocages for a broad range of biomedical applications from in vitro biosensing to targeted delivery of cargo molecules in living systems with the aid of modified targeting ligands either genetically or chemically. We reported that human HFn could selectively deliver a large amount of cargo into tumors in vivo via transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1)-mediated tumor-cell-specific targeting followed by rapid internalization. By the use of the intrinsic tumor-targeting property and unique nanocage structure of human HFn, a broad variety of cargo-loaded HFn formulations have been developed for biological analysis, imaging diagnosis, and medicine development. In view of the intrinsic tumor-targeting property, unique nanocage structure, lack of immunogenicity, and definite in vivo behavior, human HFn holds promise to promote therapeutic drugs, diagnostic imaging agents, and targeting moieties into multifunctional nanomedicines.Since the report of the intrinsic tumor-targeting property of human HFn, we have extensively explored human HFn as an ideal nanocarrier for tumor-targeted delivery of anticancer drugs, MRI contrast agents, inorganic nanoparticles, and radioisotopes. In particular, by the use of genetic tools, we also have genetically engineered human HFn nanocages to recognize a broader range of disease biomarkers. In this Account, we systematically review human ferritins from characterizing their tumor-binding property and understanding their mechanism and kinetics for cargo loading to exploring their biomedical applications. We finally discuss the prospect of ferritin-based formulations to become next-generation nanomedicines. We expect that ferritin formulations with unique physicochemical characteristics and intrinsic tumor-targeting property will attract broad interest in fundamental drug research and offer new opportunities for nanomedicine development.

One-Component Multifunctional Sequence-Defined Ionizable Amphiphilic Janus Dendrimer Delivery Systems for mRNA

Efficient viral or nonviral delivery of nucleic acids is the key step of genetic nanomedicine. Both viral and synthetic vectors have been successfully employed for genetic delivery with recent examples being DNA, adenoviral, and mRNA-based Covid-19 vaccines. Viral vectors can be target specific and very efficient but can also mediate severe immune response, cell toxicity, and mutations. Four-component lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) containing ionizable lipids, phospholipids, cholesterol for mechanical properties, and PEG-conjugated lipid for stability represent the current leading nonviral vectors for mRNA. However, the segregation of the neutral ionizable lipid as droplets in the core of the LNP, the "PEG dilemma", and the stability at only very low temperatures limit their efficiency. Here, we report the development of a one-component multifunctional ionizable amphiphilic Janus dendrimer (IAJD) delivery system for mRNA that exhibits high activity at a low concentration of ionizable amines organized in a sequence-defined arrangement. Six libraries containing 54 sequence-defined IAJDs were synthesized by an accelerated modular-orthogonal methodology and coassembled with mRNA into dendrimersome nanoparticles (DNPs) by a simple injection method rather than by the complex microfluidic technology often used for LNPs. Forty four (81%) showed activity in vitro and 31 (57%) in vivo. Some, exhibiting organ specificity, are stable at 5 °C and demonstrated higher transfection efficiency than positive control experiments in vitro and in vivo. Aside from practical applications, this proof of concept will help elucidate the mechanisms of packaging and release of mRNA from DNPs as a function of ionizable amine concentration, their sequence, and constitutional isomerism of IAJDs.

Manganese oxide nanomaterials boost cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy, a strategy that leverages the host immune function to fight against cancer, plays an increasingly important role in clinical tumor therapy. In spite of the great success achieved in not only clinical treatment but also basic research, cancer immunotherapy still faces many huge challenges. Manganese oxide nanomaterials (MONs), as ideal tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive biomaterials, are able to dramatically elicit anti-tumor immune responses in multiple ways, indicating great prospects for immunotherapy. In this review, on the basis of different mechanisms to boost immunotherapy, major highlighted topics are presented, covering adjusting an immunosuppressive TME by generating O2 (like O2-sensitized photodynamic therapy (PDT), programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) expression downregulation, reprogramming tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and restraining tumor angiogenesis and lactic acid exhaustion), inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD), photothermal therapy (PTT) induction, activating the stimulator of interferon gene (STING) pathway and immunoadjuvants for nanovaccines. We hope that this review will provide holistic understanding about MONs and their application in cancer immunotherapy, and thus pave the way to the translation from bench to bedside in the future.

Remodeling tumor microenvironment with nanomedicines

The tumor microenvironment (TME) has been recognized as a major contributor to cancer malignancy and therapeutic resistance. Thus, strategies directed to re-engineer the TME are emerging as promising approaches for improving the efficacy of antitumor therapies by enhancing tumor perfusion and drug delivery, as well as alleviating the immunosuppressive TME. In this regard, nanomedicine has shown great potential for developing effective treatments capable of re-modeling the TME by controlling drug action in a spatiotemporal manner and allowing long-lasting modulatory effects on the TME. Herein, we review recent progress on TME re-engineering by using nanomedicine, particularly focusing on formulations controlling TME characteristics through targeted interaction with cellular components of the TME. Importantly, the TME should be re-engineering to a quiescent phenotype rather than be destroyed. Finally, immediate challenges and future perspectives of TME-re-engineering nanomedicines are discussed, anticipating further innovation in this growing field. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Nanoarchitectonics on living cells

In this review article, the recent examples of nanoarchitectonics on living cells are briefly explained. Not limited to conventional polymers, functional polymers, biomaterials, nanotubes, nanoparticles (conventional and magnetic ones), various inorganic substances, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and other advanced materials have been used as components for nanoarchitectonic decorations for living cells. Despite these artificial processes, the cells can remain active or remain in hibernation without being killed. In most cases, basic functions of the cells are preserved and their resistances against external assaults are much enhanced. The possibilities of nanoarchitectonics on living cells would be high, equal to functional modifications with conventional materials. Living cells can be regarded as highly functionalized objects and have indispensable contributions to future materials nanoarchitectonics.