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Chen T, Sun C, Abbas SC, Alam N, Qiang S, Tian X, Fu C, Zhang H, Xia Y, Liu L, Ni Y, Jiang X. Multi-dimensional microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) for noninvasive testing: A review of structural design and applications. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1321:342877. [PMID: 39155092 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2024.342877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
The rapid emergence of microfluidic paper-based devices as point-of-care testing (POCT) tools for early disease diagnosis and health monitoring, particularly in resource-limited areas, holds immense potential for enhancing healthcare accessibility. Leveraging the numerous advantages of paper, such as capillary-driven flow, porous structure, hydrophilic functional groups, biodegradability, cost-effectiveness, and flexibility, it has become a pivotal choice for microfluidic substrates. The repertoire of microfluidic paper-based devices includes one-dimensional lateral flow assays (1D LFAs), two-dimensional microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (2D μPADs), and three-dimensional (3D) μPADs. In this comprehensive review, we provide and examine crucial information related to paper substrates, design strategies, and detection methods in multi-dimensional microfluidic paper-based devices. We also investigate potential applications of microfluidic paper-based devices for detecting viruses, metabolites and hormones in non-invasive samples such as human saliva, sweat and urine. Additionally, we delve into capillary-driven flow alternative theoretical models of fluids within the paper to provide guidance. Finally, we critically examine the potential for future developments and address challenges for multi-dimensional microfluidic paper-based devices in advancing noninvasive early diagnosis and health monitoring. This article showcases their transformative impact on healthcare, paving the way for enhanced medical services worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Chen
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China; Limerick Pulp & Paper Centre & Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Ce Sun
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China
| | - Syed Comail Abbas
- Limerick Pulp & Paper Centre & Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada; Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Nur Alam
- Limerick Pulp & Paper Centre & Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Sheng Qiang
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China
| | - Xiuzhi Tian
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China
| | - Chenglong Fu
- Limerick Pulp & Paper Centre & Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Hui Zhang
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China; Limerick Pulp & Paper Centre & Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Yuanyuan Xia
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China; Limerick Pulp & Paper Centre & Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Liu Liu
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China
| | - Yonghao Ni
- Limerick Pulp & Paper Centre & Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada; Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA.
| | - Xue Jiang
- College of Bioresources Chemical and Materials Engineering, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Papermaking Technology and Specialty Paper Development, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710021, China.
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2
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Kumar A, Hatayama J, Soucy A, Carpio E, Rahmani N, Anagnostopoulos C, Faghri M. Fluid Flow Dynamics in Partially Saturated Paper. MICROMACHINES 2024; 15:212. [PMID: 38398941 PMCID: PMC10892355 DOI: 10.3390/mi15020212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
This study presents an integrated approach to understanding fluid dynamics in Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices (µPADs), combining empirical investigations with advanced numerical modeling. Paper-based devices are recognized for their low cost, portability, and simplicity and are increasingly applied in health, environmental monitoring, and food quality analysis. However, challenges such as lack of flow control and the need for advanced detection methods have limited their widespread adoption. To address these challenges, our study introduces a novel numerical model that incorporates factors such as pore size, fiber orientation, and porosity, thus providing a comprehensive understanding of fluid dynamics across various saturation levels of paper. Empirical results focused on observing the wetted length in saturated paper substrates. The numerical model, integrating the Highly Simplified Marker and Cell (HSMAC) method and the High Order accuracy scheme Reducing Numerical Error Terms (HORNET) scheme, successfully predicts fluid flow in scenarios challenging for empirical observation, especially at high saturation levels. The model effectively mimicked the Lucas-Washburn relation for dry paper and demonstrated the increasing time requirement for fluid movement with rising saturation levels. It also accurately predicted faster fluid flow in Whatman Grade 4 filter paper compared with Grade 41 due to its larger pore size and forecasted an increased flow rate in the machine direction fiber orientation of Whatman Grade 4. These findings have significant implications for the design and application of µPADs, emphasizing the need for precise control of fluid flow and the consideration of substrate microstructural properties. The study's combination of empirical data and advanced numerical modeling marks a considerable advancement in paper-based microfluidics, offering robust frameworks for future development and optimization of paper-based assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Kumar
- Microfluidics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical, Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Rhode Island, 2 East Alumni Avenue, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Mohammad Faghri
- Microfluidics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical, Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Rhode Island, 2 East Alumni Avenue, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
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3
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Macleod Briongos I, Call ZD, Henry CS, Bark DL. Maximizing flow rate in single paper layer, rapid flow microfluidic paper-based analytical devices. MICROFLUIDICS AND NANOFLUIDICS 2023; 27:70. [PMID: 37719231 PMCID: PMC10499984 DOI: 10.1007/s10404-023-02679-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Small, single-layer microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (µPADs) offer potential for a range of point-of-care applications; however, they have been limited to low flow rates. Here, we investigate the role of laser cutting paper channels in maximizing flow rate in small profile devices with limited fluid volumes. We demonstrate that branching, laser-cut grooves can provide a 59.23-73.98% improvement in flow rate over a single cut, and a 435% increase over paper alone. These design considerations can be applied to more complex microfluidic devices with the aim of increasing the flow rate, and could be used in stand-alone channels for self-pumping. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10404-023-02679-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain Macleod Briongos
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Zachary D. Call
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Charles S. Henry
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - David L. Bark
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63108 USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, USA
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4
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Tokihiro JC, Tu WC, Berthier J, Lee JJ, Dostie AM, Khor JW, Eakman M, Theberge AB, Berthier E. Enhanced capillary pumping using open-channel capillary trees with integrated paper pads. PHYSICS OF FLUIDS (WOODBURY, N.Y. : 1994) 2023; 35:082120. [PMID: 37675268 PMCID: PMC10479884 DOI: 10.1063/5.0157801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
The search for efficient capillary pumping has led to two main directions for investigation: first, assembly of capillary channels to provide high capillary pressures, and second, imbibition in absorbing fibers or paper pads. In the case of open microfluidics (i.e., channels where the top boundary of the fluid is in contact with air instead of a solid wall), the coupling between capillary channels and paper pads unites the two approaches and provides enhanced capillary pumping. In this work, we investigate the coupling of capillary trees-networks of channels mimicking the branches of a tree-with paper pads placed at the extremities of the channels, mimicking the small capillary networks of leaves. It is shown that high velocities and flow rates (7 mm/s or 13.1 μl/s) for more than 30 s using 50% (v/v) isopropyl alcohol, which has a 3-fold increase in viscosity in comparison to water; 6.5 mm/s or 12.1 μl/s for more than 55 s with pentanol, which has a 3.75-fold increase in viscosity in comparison to water; and >3.5 mm/s or 6.5 μl/s for more than 150 s with nonanol, which has a 11-fold increase in viscosity in comparison to water, can be reached in the root channel, enabling higher sustained flow rates than that of capillary trees alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodie C. Tokihiro
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Wan-chen Tu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Jean Berthier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Jing J. Lee
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Ashley M. Dostie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Jian Wei Khor
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Madeleine Eakman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | | | - Erwin Berthier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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5
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Danchana K, Iwasaki H, Thayawutthikun Y, Saetear P, Kaneta T. Development of Pipetteless Paper-Based Analytical Devices with a Volume Gauge. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:11213-11219. [PMID: 37008150 PMCID: PMC10061644 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c08138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we propose a new design for paper-based analytical devices (PADs) that eliminate the need to use a micropipette for sample introduction. With this design, a PAD is equipped with a distance-based detection channel that is connected to a storage channel that indicates the volume of a sample introduced into the PAD. The analyte in the sample solution reacts with a colorimetric reagent deposited into the distance-based detection channel as the sample solution flows into the storage channel where the volume is measured. The ratio of the lengths of the detection channel and that of the storage channel (D/S ratio) are constant for a sample containing a certain concentration, which is independent of the introduced volume. Therefore, the PADs permit volume-independent quantification using a dropper instead of a micropipette because the length of the storage channel plays the role of a volume gauge to estimate the introduced sample volume. In this study, the D/S ratios obtained with a dropper were comparable to those obtained with a micropipette, which confirmed that precise volume control is unnecessary for this PAD system. The proposed PADs were applied to the determinations of iron and bovine serum albumin using bathophenanthroline and tetrabromophenol blue as colorimetric reagents, respectively. The calibration curves showed good linear relationships with coefficients of 0.989 for iron and 0.994 for bovine serum albumin, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaewta Danchana
- Department
of Chemistry, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Iwasaki
- Department
of Chemistry, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Yada Thayawutthikun
- Flow
Innovation-Research for Science and Technology Laboratories (FIRST
Labs), Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- Department
of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Phoonthawee Saetear
- Flow
Innovation-Research for Science and Technology Laboratories (FIRST
Labs), Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- Department
of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Takashi Kaneta
- Department
of Chemistry, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
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6
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Tay DMY, Kim S, Hao Y, Yee EH, Jia H, Vleck SM, Chilekwa M, Voldman J, Sikes HD. Accelerating the optimization of vertical flow assay performance guided by a rational systematic model-based approach. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 222:114977. [PMID: 36516633 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2022.114977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) have shown to be instrumental in healthcare and disease control. However, they have been plagued by many inefficiencies in the laborious empirical development and optimization process for the attainment of clinically relevant sensitivity. While various studies have sought to model paper-based RDTs, most have relied on continuum-based models that are not necessarily applicable to all operation regimes, and have solely focused on predicting the specific interactions between the antigen and binders. It is also unclear how the model predictions may be utilized for optimizing assay performance. Here, we propose a streamlined and simplified model-based framework, only relying on calibration with a minimal experimental dataset, for the acceleration of assay optimization. We show that our models are capable of recapitulating experimental data across different formats and antigen-binder-matrix combinations. By predicting signals due to both specific and background interactions, our facile approach enables the estimation of several pertinent assay performance metrics such as limit-of-detection, sensitivity, signal-to-noise ratio and difference. We believe that our proposed workflow would be a valuable addition to the toolset of any assay developer, regardless of the amount of resources they have in their arsenal, and aid assay optimization at any stage in their assay development process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dousabel M Y Tay
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Microsystems Technology Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Seunghyeon Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Yining Hao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Emma H Yee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Huan Jia
- Antimicrobial Resistance Integrated Research Group, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - Sydney M Vleck
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Makaya Chilekwa
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Joel Voldman
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Microsystems Technology Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Hadley D Sikes
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Antimicrobial Resistance Integrated Research Group, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, 1 CREATE Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore.
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Panraksa Y, Jang I, Carrell CS, Amin AG, Chailapakul O, Chatterjee D, Henry CS. Simple manipulation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using an automated microfluidic interface. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2022; 14:1774-1781. [PMID: 35481474 PMCID: PMC9119197 DOI: 10.1039/d2ay00326k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Among lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) platforms, enzyme-based LFIAs provide signal amplification to improve sensitivity. However, most enzyme-based LFIAs require multiple timed steps, complicating their utility in point-of-care testing (POCT). Here, we report a microfluidic interface for LFIAs that automates sample, buffer, and reagent addition, greatly simplifying operation while achieving the high analytical stringency associated with more complex assays. The microfluidic interface also maintains the low cost and small footprint of standard LFIAs. The platform is fabricated from a combination of polyester film, double-sided adhesive tape, and nitrocellulose, and fits in the palm of your hand. All reagents are dried on the nitrocellulose to facilitate sequential reagent delivery, and the sample is used as the wash buffer to minimize steps. After the sample addition, a user simply waits 15 min for a colorimetric result. This manuscript discusses the development and optimization of the channel geometry to achieve a simple step enzyme amplified immunoassay. As a proof-of-concept target, we selected lipoarabinomannan (LAM), a WHO identified urinary biomarker of active tuberculosis, to demonstrate the device feasibility and reliability. The results revealed that the device successfully detected LAM in phosphate buffer (PBS) as well as spiked urine samples within 15 min after sample loading. The minimum concentration of color change was achieved at 25 ng mL-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosita Panraksa
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, 1682 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.
- Program in Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
- Electrochemistry and Optical Spectroscopy Center of Excellence (EOSCE), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
| | - Ilhoon Jang
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, CO, USA, 80523.
- Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea, 04763
| | - Cody S Carrell
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, CO, USA, 80523.
| | - Anita G Amin
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, 1682 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.
| | - Orawon Chailapakul
- Electrochemistry and Optical Spectroscopy Center of Excellence (EOSCE), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Patumwan, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
| | - Delphi Chatterjee
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, 1682 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.
| | - Charles S Henry
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, CO, USA, 80523.
- Metallurgy and Materials Science Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, Soi Chula 12, Phayathai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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8
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The Loan Trinh K, Ri Chae W, Yoon Lee N. Recent advances in the fabrication strategies of paper-based microfluidic devices for rapid detection of bacteria and viruses. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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9
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Chauhan A, Toley BJ. Barrier-Free Microfluidic Paper Analytical Devices for Multiplex Colorimetric Detection of Analytes. Anal Chem 2021; 93:8954-8961. [PMID: 34126741 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c01477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, microfluidic paper analytical devices (μPADs) have been extensively utilized to conduct multiplex colorimetric assays. Despite their simple and user-friendly operation, the need for patterning paper with wax or other physical barriers to create flow channels makes large-scale manufacturing cumbersome. Moreover, convection of rehydrated reagents in the test zones leads to nonuniform colorimetric signals, which makes quantification difficult. To overcome these challenges, we present a device called a barrier-free μPAD (BF-μPAD) that consists of a stack of two paper membranes having different wicking rates-the top layer acting as a fluid distributing layer and the bottom layer containing reagents for colorimetric detection. Multiple analytes can be detected using this assembly without the need to pattern either layer with wax or other barriers. In one embodiment, a device is capable of delivering the sample fluid to 20 distinct dried reagent spots stored on an 8 cm × 2 cm membrane in as few as 30 s. The multiplexing feature of the BF-μPAD is demonstrated for colorimetric detection of salivary thiocyanate, protein, glucose, and nitrite. Most importantly, the device improves the limit of detection of colorimetric assays performed on conventional μPADs by more than 3.5×. To understand fluid imbibition in the paper assembly, the device geometry is modeled in COMSOL Multiphysics using the Richards equation; the results obtained provide insights into the nonintuitive flow pattern producing perfectly uniform signals in the barrier-free assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayushi Chauhan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Bhushan J Toley
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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10
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Noviana E, Ozer T, Carrell CS, Link JS, McMahon C, Jang I, Henry CS. Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices: From Design to Applications. Chem Rev 2021; 121:11835-11885. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eka Noviana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 55281
| | - Tugba Ozer
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey 34220
| | - Cody S. Carrell
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Jeremy S. Link
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Catherine McMahon
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
| | - Ilhoon Jang
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
- Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea 04763
| | - Charles S. Henry
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
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11
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Controlling Capillary Flow Rate on Lateral Flow Test Substrates by Tape. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:mi12050562. [PMID: 34065694 PMCID: PMC8156355 DOI: 10.3390/mi12050562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Controlling capillary flow rate of sample liquid is of high interest for lateral flow tests, since the flow rate can affect the dissolution and mixing of the immunoreagents and the efficiency of immunoreactions. Here we develop a facile method to adjust the capillary flow rate on lateral flow test substrates by using tape to cover the surface of substrates. We test this method on the traditional lateral flow test substrate—nitrocellulose and a novel lateral flow test substrate—synthetic paper, which is a porous media made by interlocked off-stoichiometry thiol-ene (OSTE) micropillars. We found that after the surface was covered by tape, the average flow rate decreased to 61% of the original flow rate on nitrocellulose, while the average flow rate increased to at least 320% of the original flow rate on synthetic paper. More interesting, besides the increase of flow rate, the volume capacity of synthetic paper also increases after covered by tape. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of length and position of tape on the capillary flow rate for nitrocellulose. A longer tape will lead to a smaller flow rate. The influence of tape of same length on the flow rate is bigger when the tape is placed closer to the loading pad. These results can help in the flow rate control on lateral flow test substrates, and potentially improve the performance of lateral flow tests.
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12
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Modha S, Castro C, Tsutsui H. Recent developments in flow modeling and fluid control for paper-based microfluidic biosensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2021; 178:113026. [PMID: 33545552 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Over the last 10 years, researchers have shown that paper is a promising substrate for affordable biosensors. The field of paper-microfluidics has evolved rapidly in that time, with simple colorimetric assays giving way to more complex electrochemical devices that can handle multiple samples at a given time. As paper devices become more complex, the ability to precisely control different fluids simultaneously becomes a challenge. Specifically, automated flow control is a necessary attribute to make paper-based devices more useable in resource-limited settings. Flow control strategies on paper are typically developed experimentally through trial-and-error, with little focus on theory. This is because flow behavior in paper is not well understood and sometimes difficult to predict precisely. Additionally, popular theoretical models are too simplistic, making them unsuitable for complex device designs and application conditions. A better understanding of flow theory would allow devices conceived straight from theoretical models. This could save time and resources by reducing experimental work. In this review, we provide an overview of different theoretical models used to characterize imbibition in paper substrates and document the latest flow control strategies that have been applied to automated fluid control on paper. Additionally, we look at current efforts to commercialize paper-based devices along with challenges facing this industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidharth Modha
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - Carlos Castro
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Pomona, CA, 91768, USA
| | - Hideaki Tsutsui
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA; Stem Cell Center, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
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13
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Jang I, Kang H, Song S, Dandy DS, Geiss BJ, Henry CS. Flow control in a laminate capillary-driven microfluidic device. Analyst 2021; 146:1932-1939. [PMID: 33492316 PMCID: PMC7990706 DOI: 10.1039/d0an02279a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Capillary-driven microfluidic devices are of significant interest for on-site analysis because they do not require external pumps and can be made from inexpensive materials. Among capillary-driven devices, those made from paper and polyester film are among the most common and have been used in a wide array of applications. However, since capillary forces are the only driving force, flow is difficult to control, and passive flow control methods such as changing the geometry must be used to accomplish various analytical applications. This study presents several new flow control methods that can be utilized in a laminate capillary-driven microfluidic device to increase available functionality. First, we introduce push and burst valve systems that can stop and start flow. These valves can stop flow for >30 min and be opened by either pressing the channel or inflowing other fluids to the valve region. Next, we propose flow control methods for Y-shaped channels that enable more functions. In one example, we demonstrate the ability to accurately control concentration to create laminar, gradient, and fully mixed flows. In a second example, flow velocity in the main channel is controlled by adjusting the length of the inlet channel. In addition, the flow velocity is constant as the inlet length increases. Finally, the flow velocity in the Y-shaped device as a function of channel height and fluid properties such as viscosity and surface tension was examined. As in previous studies on capillary-driven channels, the flow rate was affected by each parameter. The fluidic control tools presented here will enable new designs and functions for low cost point of need assays across a variety of fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilhoon Jang
- Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea, 04763
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, CO, USA, 80523
| | - Hyunwoong Kang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea, 04763
| | - Simon Song
- Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea, 04763
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea, 04763
| | - David S. Dandy
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, CO, USA, 80523
| | - Brian J. Geiss
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, CO, USA, 80523
| | - Charles S. Henry
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, CO, USA, 80523
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Microfluidic and Microscale Assays to Examine Regenerative Strategies in the Neuro Retina. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11121089. [PMID: 33316971 PMCID: PMC7763644 DOI: 10.3390/mi11121089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bioengineering systems have transformed scientific knowledge of cellular behaviors in the nervous system (NS) and pioneered innovative, regenerative therapies to treat adult neural disorders. Microscale systems with characteristic lengths of single to hundreds of microns have examined the development and specialized behaviors of numerous neuromuscular and neurosensory components of the NS. The visual system is comprised of the eye sensory organ and its connecting pathways to the visual cortex. Significant vision loss arises from dysfunction in the retina, the photosensitive tissue at the eye posterior that achieves phototransduction of light to form images in the brain. Retinal regenerative medicine has embraced microfluidic technologies to manipulate stem-like cells for transplantation therapies, where de/differentiated cells are introduced within adult tissue to replace dysfunctional or damaged neurons. Microfluidic systems coupled with stem cell biology and biomaterials have produced exciting advances to restore vision. The current article reviews contemporary microfluidic technologies and microfluidics-enhanced bioassays, developed to interrogate cellular responses to adult retinal cues. The focus is on applications of microfluidics and microscale assays within mammalian sensory retina, or neuro retina, comprised of five types of retinal neurons (photoreceptors, horizontal, bipolar, amacrine, retinal ganglion) and one neuroglia (Müller), but excludes the non-sensory, retinal pigmented epithelium.
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15
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Call ZD, Carrell CS, Jang I, Geiss BJ, Dandy DS, Henry CS. Paper-based pump-free magnetophoresis. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:5177-5185. [PMID: 33073789 PMCID: PMC7666097 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay01523g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic magnetophoresis is a powerful technique that is used to separate and/or isolate cells of interest from complex matrices for analysis. However, mechanical pumps are required to drive flow, limiting portability and making translation to point-of-care (POC) settings difficult. Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) offer an alternative to traditional microfluidic devices that do not require external pumps to generate flow. However, μPADs are not typically used for particle analysis because most particles become trapped in the porous fiber network. Here we report the ability of newly developed fast-flow microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (ffPADs) to perform magnetophoresis. ffPADs use capillary action in a gap between stacked layers of paper and transparency sheets to drive flow at higher velocities than traditional μPADs. The multi-layer ffPADs allow particles and cells to move through the gap without being trapped in the paper layers. We first demonstrate that ffPADs enable magnetic particle separations in a μPAD with a neodymium permanent magnet and study key factors that affect performance. To demonstrate utility, E. coli was used as a model analyte and was isolated from human urine before detection with a fluorescently labeled antibody. A capture efficiency of 61.5% was then obtained of E. coli labeled magnetic beads in human urine. Future studies will look at the improvement of the capture efficiency and to make this assay completely off-chip without the need of a fluorescent label. The assay and device described here demonstrate the first example of magnetophoresis in a paper based, pump free microfluidic device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary D Call
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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16
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Suo S, Gan Y. Rupture of Liquid Bridges on Porous Tips: Competing Mechanisms of Spontaneous Imbibition and Stretching. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:13642-13648. [PMID: 33147041 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c02479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Liquid bridges are commonly encountered in nature and the liquid transfer induced by their rupture is widely used in various industrial applications. In this work, with the focus on the porous tip, we studied the impacts of capillary effects on the liquid transfer induced by the rupture through numerical simulations. To depict the capillary effects of a porous tip, a time scale ratio, RT, is proposed to compare the competing mechanisms of spontaneous imbibition and external drag. In terms of RT, we then develop a theoretical model for estimating the liquid retention ratio considering the geometry, porosity, and wettability of tips. The mechanism presented in this work provides a possible approach to control the liquid transfer with better accuracy in microfluidics or microfabrications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si Suo
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Yixiang Gan
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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17
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Liu Y, Shangguan JW, Xu BY, Yu XD, Xu JJ, Chen HY. Abnormal Liquid Chasing Effect in Paper Capillary Enables Versatile Gradient Generation on Microfluidic Paper Analytical Devices. Anal Chem 2020; 92:2722-2730. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jin-Wen Shangguan
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Bi-Yi Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Xiao-Dong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jing-Juan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hong-Yuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
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18
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Kava AA, Beardsley C, Hofstetter J, Henry CS. Disposable glassy carbon stencil printed electrodes for trace detection of cadmium and lead. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1103:58-66. [PMID: 32081189 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.12.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) pollution is a significant environmental and human health concern, and methods to detect Cd and Pb on site are valuable. Stencil-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) are an attractive electrode material for point-of-care (POC) applications due to their low cost, ease of fabrication, disposability and portability. At present, SPCEs are exclusively formulated from graphitic carbon powder and conductive carbon ink. However, graphitic carbon SPCEs are not ideal for heavy metal sensing due to the heterogeneity of graphitic SPCE surfaces. Moreover, SPCEs typically require extensive modification to provide desirable detection limits and sensitivity at the POC, significantly increasing cost and complexity of analysis. While there are many examples of chemically modified SPCEs, the bulk SPCE composition has not been studied for heavy metal detection. Here, a glassy carbon microparticle stencil printed electrode (GC-SPE) was developed. The GC-SPEs were first characterized with SEM and cyclic voltammetry and then optimized for Cd and Pb detection with an in situ Bi-film plated. The GC-SPEs require no chemical modification or pretreatment significantly decreasing the cost and complexity of fabrication. The detection limits for Cd and Pb were estimated to be 0.46 μg L-1 and 0.55 μg L-1, respectively, which are below EPA limits for drinking water (5 μg L-1 Cd and 10 μg L-1 Pb) [1]. The reported GC-SPEs are advantageous with their low cost, ease of fabrication and use, and attractive performance. The GC-SPEs can be used for low-level metal detection at the POC as shown in the report herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa A Kava
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, United States
| | - Chloe Beardsley
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, United States; Access Sensor Technologies, Fort Collins, CO, 80526, United States
| | | | - Charles S Henry
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, United States.
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Paper Stacks for Uniform Rehydration of Dried Reagents in Paper Microfluidic Devices. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15755. [PMID: 31673060 PMCID: PMC6823543 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52202-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Spatially uniform reconstitution of dried reagents is critical to the function of paper microfluidic devices. Advancing fluid fronts in paper microfluidic devices drive (convect) and concentrate rehydrated reagents to the edges, causing steep chemical gradients and imperfect mixing. This largely unsolved problem in paper microfluidics is exacerbated by increasing device dimensions. In this article, we demonstrate that mixing of dried reagents with a rehydrating fluid in paper microfluidics may be significantly enhanced by stacking paper layers having different wicking rates. Compared to single-layer paper membranes, stacking reduced the “non-reactive area”, i.e. area in which the reconstituted reagents did not interact with the rehydrating fluid, by as much as 97% in large (8 cm × 2 cm) paper membranes. A paper stack was designed to collect ~0.9 ml liquid sample and uniformly mix it with dried reagents. Applications of this technology are demonstrated in two areas: (i) collection and dry storage of sputum samples for tuberculosis testing, and (ii) salivary glucose detection using an enzymatic assay and colorimetric readout. Maximizing the interaction of liquids with dried reagents is central to enhancing the performance of all paper microfluidic devices; this technique is therefore likely to find important applications in paper microfluidics.
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Lim H, Jafry AT, Lee J. Fabrication, Flow Control, and Applications of Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Devices. Molecules 2019; 24:E2869. [PMID: 31394856 PMCID: PMC6721703 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24162869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paper-based microfluidic devices have advanced significantly in recent years as they are affordable, automated with capillary action, portable, and biodegradable diagnostic platforms for a variety of health, environmental, and food quality applications. In terms of commercialization, however, paper-based microfluidics still have to overcome significant challenges to become an authentic point-of-care testing format with the advanced capabilities of analyte purification, multiplex analysis, quantification, and detection with high sensitivity and selectivity. Moreover, fluid flow manipulation for multistep integration, which involves valving and flow velocity control, is also a critical parameter to achieve high-performance devices. Considering these limitations, the aim of this review is to (i) comprehensively analyze the fabrication techniques of microfluidic paper-based analytical devices, (ii) provide a theoretical background and various methods for fluid flow manipulation, and iii) highlight the recent detection techniques developed for various applications, including their advantages and disadvantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hosub Lim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea
| | - Ali Turab Jafry
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi 23640, Pakistan.
| | - Jinkee Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea.
- Institute of Quantum Biophysics, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Korea.
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