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Tohidi E, Ghaemi M, Golvajouei MS. A review on camelid nanobodies with potential application in veterinary medicine. Vet Res Commun 2024:10.1007/s11259-024-10432-x. [PMID: 38869749 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-024-10432-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
The single variable domains of camelid heavy-chain only antibodies, known as nanobodies, have taken a long journey since their discovery in 1989 until the first nanobody-based drug's entrance to the market in 2022. On account of their unique properties, nanobodies have been successfully used for diagnosis and therapy against various diseases or conditions. Although research on the application of recombinant antibodies has focused on human medicine, the development of nanobodies has paved the way for incorporating recombinant antibody production in favour of veterinary medicine. Currently, despite many efforts in developing these biomolecules with diversified applications, significant opportunities exist for exploiting these highly versatile and cost-effective antibodies in veterinary medicine. The present study attempts to identify existing gaps and shed light on paths for future research by presenting an updated review on camelid nanobodies with potential applications in veterinary medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emadodin Tohidi
- Biotechnology Division, Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Mehran Ghaemi
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sadegh Golvajouei
- Biotechnology Division, Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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2
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Zhang S, Ma J, He L, Li Q, He P, Li J, Zhang H. Generation and characterization of nanobodies targeting human pepsinogens. Protein Expr Purif 2024; 216:106431. [PMID: 38184161 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2024.106431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Human pepsinogens (mainly pepsinogen I and pepsinogen II) are the major inactive precursor forms of the digestive enzyme pepsin which play a crucial role in protein digestion. The levels and ratios of human pepsinogens have demonstrated potential as diagnostic biomarkers for gastrointestinal diseases, particularly gastric cancer. Nanobodies are promising tools for the treatment and diagnosis of diseases, owing to their unique recognition properties. In this study, recombinant human pepsinogens proteins were expressed and purified as immunized antigens. We constructed a VHH phage library and identified several nanobodies via phage display bio-panning. We determined the binding potency and cross-reactivity of these nanobodies. Our study provides technical support for developing immunodiagnostic reagents targeting human pepsinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shenglan Zhang
- Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), 510005, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Jieyao Ma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, 418000, Huaihua, China
| | - Liu He
- Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), 510005, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qianying Li
- Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), 510005, Guangzhou, China
| | - Pan He
- Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), 510005, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Li
- Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), 510005, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huicong Zhang
- Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), 510005, Guangzhou, China
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3
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Zhang Y, Liao X, Yu G, Wei J, Wang P, Wang Y, Jing Y, Wang J, Chen P, Wang J, Wang H, Wang Y. Phage-Displayed Nanobody as a Sensitive Nanoprobe to Enhance Chemiluminescent Immunoassay for Cronobacter sakazakii Detection in Dairy Products. Anal Chem 2023; 95:13698-13707. [PMID: 37635301 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c02990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
The exploitation of stable, high-affinity, and low-cost nanoprobes is essential to develop immunoassays for real-time monitoring of foodborne pathogens, so as to safeguard human health. The possible interaction of the Fc fragment of antibodies with spA protein on Staphylococcus aureus will result in unexpected interference. To address this consideration, we described herein for the first time the development of nanobodies that by definition are devoid of the Fc fraction. These nanobodies directed against Cronobacter sakazakii (C. sakazakii) were retrieved from a dedicated immune phage-displayed nanobody library. The binders showed superiority of low cost, strong stability, high binding affinity, and adequate load capacity. Thereafter, a phage-mediated sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was constructed by using Cs-Nb2 as an antigen-capturing antibody and phage-displayed Cs-Nb1 as a detection probe. To further enhance the sensitivity, a chemiluminescent enzyme immunoassay (CISA) was established by replacing the substrate from 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to luminol, providing a limit of detection of 1.04 × 104 CFU/mL, with a recovery of 98.15-114.63% for the detection of C. sakazakii in dairy products. The proposed nanobody-based phage-mediated sandwich CLISA shows various advantages, including high sensitivity, cost effectiveness, enhanced loading capacity of the enzyme, and high resistance to the matrix effect, providing a strategy for the design of immunoassays toward foodborne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xingrui Liao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Gege Yu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Juan Wei
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Peng Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yueqi Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yinnan Jing
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiamin Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Pengyu Chen
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jianlong Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yanru Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
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Dhehibi A, Allaoui A, Raouafi A, Terrak M, Bouhaouala-Zahar B, Hammadi M, Raouafi N, Salhi I. Nanobody-Based Sandwich Immunoassay for Pathogenic Escherichia coli F17 Strain Detection. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:299. [PMID: 36832065 PMCID: PMC9953962 DOI: 10.3390/bios13020299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Rapid and specific detection of pathogenic bacteria in fecal samples is of critical importance for the diagnosis of neonatal diarrhea in veterinary clinics. Nanobodies are a promising tool for the treatment and diagnosis of infectious diseases due to their unique recognition properties. In this study, we report the design of a nanobody-based magnetofluorescent immunoassay for the sensitive detection of pathogenic Escherichia coli F17-positive strains (E. coli F17). For this, a camel was immunized with purified F17A protein from F17 fimbriae and a nanobody library was constructed by phage display. Two specific anti-F17A nanobodies (Nbs) were selected to design the bioassay. The first one (Nb1) was conjugated to magnetic beads (MBs) to form a complex capable of efficiently capturing the target bacteria. A second horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated nanobody (Nb4) was used for detection by oxidizing o-phenylenediamine (OPD) to fluorescent 2,3-diaminophenazine (DAP). Our results show that the immunoassay recognizes E. coli F17 with high specificity and sensitivity, with a detection limit of 1.8 CFU/mL in only 90 min. Furthermore, we showed that the immunoassay can be applied to fecal samples without pretreatment and remains stable for at least one month when stored at 4 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Dhehibi
- Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory (LR16IRA04), Arid Lands Institute (I.R.A), University of Gabès, Médenine 4119, Tunisia
| | - Abdelmounaaim Allaoui
- Laboratory of Microbiology, African Genome Centre, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660—Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco
| | - Amal Raouafi
- Sensors and Biosensors Group, Analytical Chemistry and Electrochemistry Lab (LR99ES15), University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis El Manar 2092, Tunisia
| | - Mohammed Terrak
- InBioS-Centre for Protein Engineering, University of Liege, B-4000 Liege, Belgium
| | - Balkiss Bouhaouala-Zahar
- Laboratory of Venoms and Theranostic Applications (LR20IPT01), Place Pasteur, BP74, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Mohamed Hammadi
- Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory (LR16IRA04), Arid Lands Institute (I.R.A), University of Gabès, Médenine 4119, Tunisia
| | - Noureddine Raouafi
- Sensors and Biosensors Group, Analytical Chemistry and Electrochemistry Lab (LR99ES15), University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis El Manar 2092, Tunisia
| | - Imed Salhi
- Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory (LR16IRA04), Arid Lands Institute (I.R.A), University of Gabès, Médenine 4119, Tunisia
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Zhang X, Liu C, Xie Y, Hu Q, Chen Y, Li J. Identification and characterization of blocking nanobodies against human CD70. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2022; 54:1518-1527. [PMID: 36239354 PMCID: PMC9827822 DOI: 10.3724/abbs.2022141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
CD70 is overexpressed in a variety of solid and hematological tumors and plays a role in tumor proliferation and evasion of immune surveillance. Targeting and blocking its binding to the receptor CD27 have the potential to treat CD70-dependent tumors. To generate novel CD70 blocking agents, we screen a human CD70-immunized camel VHH phage display library and isolate two blocking nanobodies against human CD70 targeting different epitopes. Upon enrichment by three rounds of biopanning, two strategies are employed to identify CD70 blockers. One named affinity selection is used for detecting clones with CD70 binding by conventional PE-ELISA. However, no clone with a blocking effect is obtained from 188 enriched clones by this method. The alternative strategy named competitive selection is based on the inhibiting capacity of CD70-CD27 binding by enriched VHHs. By this method, two clones, Nb-2B3 and Nb-3B6, with strong blocking capacity are obtained from 20 enriched VHHs, suggesting the efficiency of this strategy. Furthermore, Nb-2B3 and Nb-3B6 specifically bind to CD70-positive SKOV3 and Raji cells at low concentrations. Meanwhile, Nb-2B3 has no competitive effect on the binding of Nb-3B6 to CD70, and vice versa, indicating that they target two different epitopes on CD70. Our data show that nanobodies Nb-2B3 and Nb-3B6 are potential attractive theranostic agents for CD70-expressing cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic EngineeringCollege of Life Science and TechnologyXinjiang UniversityUrumqi830046China
| | - Chang Liu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic EngineeringCollege of Life Science and TechnologyXinjiang UniversityUrumqi830046China
| | - Yuan Xie
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic EngineeringCollege of Life Science and TechnologyXinjiang UniversityUrumqi830046China
| | - Qianqian Hu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic EngineeringCollege of Life Science and TechnologyXinjiang UniversityUrumqi830046China
| | | | - Jiangwei Li
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic EngineeringCollege of Life Science and TechnologyXinjiang UniversityUrumqi830046China,Xinjiang Unique Mab BioTech Co.LtdUrumqi830002China,Correspondence: Tel: +86-18099167036;
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Schlör A, Hirschberg S, Amor GB, Meister TL, Arora P, Pöhlmann S, Hoffmann M, Pfaender S, Eddin OK, Kamhieh-Milz J, Hanack K. SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing camelid heavy-chain-only antibodies as powerful tools for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Front Immunol 2022; 13:930975. [PMID: 36189209 PMCID: PMC9517167 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.930975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
IntroductionThe ongoing COVID-19 pandemic situation caused by SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern such as B.1.617.2 (Delta) and recently, B.1.1.529 (Omicron) is posing multiple challenges to humanity. The rapid evolution of the virus requires adaptation of diagnostic and therapeutic applications.ObjectivesIn this study, we describe camelid heavy-chain-only antibodies (hcAb) as useful tools for novel in vitro diagnostic assays and for therapeutic applications due to their neutralizing capacity.MethodsFive antibody candidates were selected out of a naïve camelid library by phage display and expressed as full length IgG2 antibodies. The antibodies were characterized by Western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, surface plasmon resonance with regard to their specificity to the recombinant SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein and to SARS-CoV-2 virus-like particles. Neutralization assays were performed with authentic SARS-CoV-2 and pseudotyped viruses (wildtype and Omicron).ResultsAll antibodies efficiently detect recombinant SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein and SARS-CoV-2 virus-like particles in different ELISA setups. The best combination was shown with hcAb B10 as catcher antibody and HRP-conjugated hcAb A7.2 as the detection antibody. Further, four out of five antibodies potently neutralized authentic wildtype SARS-CoV-2 and particles pseudotyped with the SARS-CoV-2 Spike proteins of the wildtype and Omicron variant, sublineage BA.1 at concentrations between 0.1 and 0.35 ng/mL (ND50).ConclusionCollectively, we report novel camelid hcAbs suitable for diagnostics and potential therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stefan Hirschberg
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Transfusion Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Toni Luise Meister
- Department for Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Prerna Arora
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Center– Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stefan Pöhlmann
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Center– Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
- Faculty of Biology and Psychology, University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Markus Hoffmann
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Center– Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Stephanie Pfaender
- Department for Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | | | - Julian Kamhieh-Milz
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Transfusion Medicine, Berlin, Germany
- Wimedko GmbH, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katja Hanack
- New/era/mabs GmbH, Potsdam, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
- *Correspondence: Katja Hanack,
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A Novel Nanobody-Horseradish Peroxidase Fusion Based-Competitive ELISA to Rapidly Detect Avian Corona-Virus-Infectious Bronchitis Virus Antibody in Chicken Serum. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147589. [PMID: 35886935 PMCID: PMC9321063 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian coronavirus-infectious bronchitis virus (AvCoV-IBV) is the causative agent of infectious bronchitis (IB) that has brought great threat and economic losses to the global poultry industry. Rapid and accurate diagnostic methods are very necessary for effective disease monitoring. At the present study, we screened a novel nanobody against IBV-N protein for development of a rapid, simple, sensitive, and specific competitive ELISA for IBV antibody detection in order to enable the assessment of inoculation effect and early warning of disease infection. Using the phage display technology and bio-panning, we obtained 7 specific nanobodies fused with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) which were expressed in culture supernatant of HEK293T cells. Out of which, the nanobody of IBV-N-Nb66-vHRP has highly binding with IBV-N protein and was easily blocked by the IBV positive serums, which was finally employed as an immunoprobe for development of the competitive ELISA (cELISA). In the newly developed cELISA, we reduce the use of enzyme-conjugated secondary antibody, and the time of whole operation process is approximately 1 h. Moreover, the IBV positive serums diluted at 1:1000 can still be detected by the developed cELISA, and it has no cross reactivity with others chicken disease serums including Newcastle disease virus, Fowl adenovirus, Avian Influenza Virus, Infectious bursal disease virus and Hepatitis E virus. The cut-off value of the established cELISA was 36%, and the coefficient of variation of intra- and inter-assay were 0.55–1.65% and 2.58–6.03%, respectively. Compared with the commercial ELISA (IDEXX kit), the agreement rate of two methods was defined as 98% and the kappa value was 0.96, indicating the developed cELISA has high consistency with the commercial ELISA. Taken together, the novel cELISA for IBV antibody detection is a simple, rapid, sensitive, and specific immunoassay, which has the potential to rapidly test IBV antibody contributing to the surveillance and control of the disease.
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Ji F, Ren J, Vincke C, Jia L, Muyldermans S. Nanobodies: From Serendipitous Discovery of Heavy Chain-Only Antibodies in Camelids to a Wide Range of Useful Applications. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2022; 2446:3-17. [PMID: 35157266 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2075-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The presence of unique heavy chain-only antibodies (HCAbs) in camelids was discovered at Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB, Brussels, Belgium) at a time when many researchers were exploring the cloning and expression of smaller antigen-binding fragments (Fv and Fab) from hybridoma-derived antibodies. The potential importance of this discovery was anticipated, and efforts were immediately undertaken to understand the emergence and ontogeny of these HCAbs as well as to investigate the applications of the single-domain antigen-binding variable domains of HCAbs (nanobodies). Nanobodies were demonstrated to possess multiple biochemical and biophysical advantages over other antigen-binding antibody fragments and alternative scaffolds. Today, nanobodies have a significant and growing impact on research, biotechnology, and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangling Ji
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Imaging, School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Jun Ren
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Imaging, School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Cécile Vincke
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lingyun Jia
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Imaging, School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Serge Muyldermans
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Imaging, School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning, China. .,Cellular and Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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9
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Pillay TS, Muyldermans S. Application of Single-Domain Antibodies ("Nanobodies") to Laboratory Diagnosis. Ann Lab Med 2021; 41:549-558. [PMID: 34108282 PMCID: PMC8203438 DOI: 10.3343/alm.2021.41.6.549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies have proven to be central in the development of diagnostic methods over decades, moving from polyclonal antibodies to the milestone development of monoclonal antibodies. Although monoclonal antibodies play a valuable role in diagnosis, their production is technically demanding and can be expensive. The large size of monoclonal antibodies (150 kDa) makes their re-engineering using recombinant methods a challenge. Single-domain antibodies, such as “nanobodies,” are a relatively new class of diagnostic probes that originated serendipitously during the assay of camel serum. The immune system of the camelid family (camels, llamas, and alpacas) has evolved uniquely to produce heavy-chain antibodies that contain a single monomeric variable antibody domain in a smaller functional unit of 12–15 kDa. Interestingly, the same biological phenomenon is observed in sharks. Since a single-domain antibody molecule is smaller than a conventional mammalian antibody, recombinant engineering and protein expression in vitro using bacterial production systems are much simpler. The entire gene encoding such an antibody can be cloned and expressed in vitro. Single-domain antibodies are very stable and heat-resistant, and hence do not require cold storage, especially when incorporated into a diagnostic kit. Their simple genetic structure allows easy re-engineering of the protein to introduce new antigen-binding characteristics or attach labels. Here, we review the applications of single-domain antibodies in laboratory diagnosis and discuss the future potential in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahir S Pillay
- Department of Chemical Pathology and NHLS- Tshwane Academic Division, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Division of Chemical Pathology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Department of Chemical Pathology, University of Pretoria, Prinshof Campus, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Serge Muyldermans
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Liaoning Key Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Imaging, School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
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10
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Trashin S, Morales-Yánez F, Thiruvottriyur Shanmugam S, Paredis L, Carrión EN, Sariego I, Muyldermans S, Polman K, Gorun SM, De Wael K. Nanobody-Based Immunosensor Detection Enhanced by Photocatalytic-Electrochemical Redox Cycling. Anal Chem 2021; 93:13606-13614. [PMID: 34585567 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c02876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Detection of antigenic biomarkers present in trace amounts is of crucial importance for medical diagnosis. A parasitic disease, human toxocariasis, lacks an adequate diagnostic method despite its worldwide occurrence. The currently used serology tests may stay positive even years after a possibly unnoticed infection, whereas the direct detection of a re-infection or a still active infection remains a diagnostic challenge due to the low concentration of circulating parasitic antigens. We report a time-efficient sandwich immunosensor using small recombinant single-domain antibodies (nanobodies) derived from camelid heavy-chain antibodies specific to Toxocara canis antigens. An enhanced sensitivity to pg/mL levels is achieved by using a redox cycle consisting of a photocatalytic oxidation and electrochemical reduction steps. The photocatalytic oxidation is achieved by a photosensitizer generating singlet oxygen (1O2) that, in turn, readily reacts with p-nitrophenol enzymatically produced under alkaline conditions. The photooxidation produces benzoquinone that is electrochemically reduced to hydroquinone, generating an amperometric response. The light-driven process could be easily separated from the background, thus making amperometric detection more reliable. The proposed method for detection of the toxocariasis antigen marker shows superior performances compared to other detection schemes with the same nanobodies and outperforms by at least two orders of magnitude the assays based on regular antibodies, thus suggesting new opportunities for electrochemical immunoassays of challenging low levels of antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francisco Morales-Yánez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium.,Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Linda Paredis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Erik N Carrión
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Center for Functional Materials, Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey 07079, United States
| | - Idalia Sariego
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Medicine Pedro Kouri, 17100 Havana, Cuba
| | - Serge Muyldermans
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Katja Polman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Sergiu M Gorun
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Center for Functional Materials, Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey 07079, United States
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Brilhante-da-Silva N, de Oliveira Sousa RM, Arruda A, Dos Santos EL, Marinho ACM, Stabeli RG, Fernandes CFC, Pereira SDS. Camelid Single-Domain Antibodies for the Development of Potent Diagnosis Platforms. Mol Diagn Ther 2021; 25:439-456. [PMID: 34146333 DOI: 10.1007/s40291-021-00533-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The distinct biophysical and pharmaceutical properties of camelid single-domain antibodies, referred to as VHHs or nanobodies, are associated with their nanometric dimensions, elevated stability, and antigen recognition capacity. These biomolecules can circumvent a number of diagnostic system limitations, especially those related to the size and stability of conventional immunoglobulins currently used in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and point-of-care, electrochemical, and imaging assays. In these formats, VHHs are directionally conjugated to different molecules, such as metallic nanoparticles, small peptides, and radioisotopes, which demonstrates their comprehensive versatility. Thus, the application of VHHs in diagnostic systems range from the identification of cancer cells to the detection of degenerative disease biomarkers, viral antigens, bacterial toxins, and insecticides. The improvements of sensitivity and specificity are among the central benefits resulting from the use of VHHs, which are indispensable parameters for high-quality diagnostics. Therefore, this review highlights the main biotechnological advances related to camelid single-domain antibodies and their use in in vitro and in vivo diagnostic approaches for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nairo Brilhante-da-Silva
- Laboratório de Engenharia de Anticorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Unidade Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, 76812-245, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, IOC, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rosa Maria de Oliveira Sousa
- Laboratório de Engenharia de Anticorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Unidade Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, 76812-245, Brazil
| | - Andrelisse Arruda
- Laboratório de Engenharia de Anticorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Unidade Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, 76812-245, Brazil
| | - Eliza Lima Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Engenharia de Anticorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Unidade Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, 76812-245, Brazil
| | - Anna Carolina Machado Marinho
- Plataforma de Desenvolvimento de Anticorpos e Nanocorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Ceará, Eusebio, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Guerino Stabeli
- Plataforma Bi-institucional de Medicina Translacional.Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-USP, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carla Freire Celedonio Fernandes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, IOC, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Plataforma de Desenvolvimento de Anticorpos e Nanocorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Ceará, Eusebio, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Soraya Dos Santos Pereira
- Laboratório de Engenharia de Anticorpos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Unidade Rondônia, Porto Velho, RO, 76812-245, Brazil.
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, IOC, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Experimental, Universidade Federal de Rondônia, Porto Velho, Brazil.
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12
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Bastos-Soares EA, Sousa RMO, Gómez AF, Alfonso J, Kayano AM, Zanchi FB, Funes-Huacca ME, Stábeli RG, Soares AM, Pereira SS, Fernandes CFC. Single domain antibodies in the development of immunosensors for diagnostics. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 165:2244-2252. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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13
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Abstract
Unique, functional, homodimeric heavy chain-only antibodies, devoid of light chains, are circulating in the blood of Camelidae. These antibodies recognize their cognate antigen via one single domain, known as VHH or Nanobody. This serendipitous discovery made three decades ago has stimulated a growing number of researchers to generate highly specific Nanobodies against a myriad of targets. The small size, strict monomeric state, robustness, and easy tailoring of these Nanobodies have inspired many groups to design innovative Nanobody-based multi-domain constructs to explore novel applications. As such, Nanobodies have been employed as an exquisite research tool in structural, cell, and developmental biology. Furthermore, Nanobodies have demonstrated their benefit for more sensitive diagnostic tests. Finally, several Nanobody-based constructs have been designed to develop new therapeutic products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge Muyldermans
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; .,Liaoning Key Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Imaging, School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116023, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
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14
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Li D, Cui Y, Morisseau C, Wagner KM, Cho YS, Hammock BD. Development of a Highly Sensitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Mouse Soluble Epoxide Hydrolase Detection by Combining a Polyclonal Capture Antibody with a Nanobody Tracer. Anal Chem 2020; 92:11654-11663. [PMID: 32786492 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c01511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) for the detection of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH), a key enzyme in the metabolism of fatty acids and a biomarker, may increasingly represent an important diagnostic tool. However, there is a lack of ELISAs for mouse sEH quantification, thus resulting in a bottleneck in understanding the pathogenesis of many diseases related to sEH based on mouse models. In this work, nanobodies recognizing mouse sEH were obtained through rebiopanning against mouse sEH in the previous phage display library of human sEH. Later, we developed four ELISAs involving a combination of anti-mouse sEH polyclonal antibodies (pAbs) and nanobodies. It was found that the double antibodies worked as dual filters and had a huge impact on both the sensitivity and selectivity of sandwich immunoassays. The switch from anti-human sEH pAbs to anti-mouse sEH pAbs led to over a 100-fold increase in the sensitivity and a dramatic decrease of the limit of detection to a picogram per milliliter range in format B (pAb/biotin-VHH/streptavidin-poly-horseradish peroxidase). Moreover, we found that the four sandwich ELISAs might demonstrate excellent selectivities to mouse sEH, despite the antibodies alone showing significant cross-reactivity to the matrix, indicating the enhanced selectivity of double antibodies as dual filters. Eventually, for the first time, the ELISA (format B) was successfully used to measure the mouse sEH level in cancer cells with ultralow abundances. The ELISAs proposed here represent a sensitive tool for tracking sEH in various biological processes and also provide deep insights into developing sandwich immunoassays against various targets in terms of both the sensitivity and selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongyang Li
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Yongliang Cui
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States.,Citrus Research Institute, Southwest University and National Citrus Engineering Research Center, Chongqing 400712, China
| | - Christophe Morisseau
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Karen M Wagner
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Young Sik Cho
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States.,Department of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, South Korea
| | - Bruce D Hammock
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
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15
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Muyldermans S. A guide to: generation and design of nanobodies. FEBS J 2020; 288:2084-2102. [PMID: 32780549 PMCID: PMC8048825 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
A nanobody (Nb) is a registered trademark of Ablynx, referring to the single antigen-binding domain of heavy chain-only antibodies (HCAbs) that are circulating in Camelidae. Nbs are produced recombinantly in micro-organisms and employed as research tools or for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. They were - and still are - also named single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) or variable domain of the heavy chain of HCAbs (VHH). A variety of methods are currently in use for the fast and efficient generation of target-specific Nbs. Such Nbs are produced at low cost and associate with high affinity to their cognate antigen. They are robust, strictly monomeric and easy to tailor into more complex entities to meet the requirements of their application. Here, we review the various sources and different strategies that have been developed to identify rapidly, target-specific Nbs. We further discuss a variety of engineering technologies that have been explored to broaden the application range of Nbs and summarise those applications where designed Nbs might offer a marked advantage over other affinity reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge Muyldermans
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium.,Liaoning Key Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Imaging, School of Bioengineering, Dalian University of Technology, China
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16
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Morales-Yánez F, Trashin S, Sariego I, Roucher C, Paredis L, Chico M, De Wael K, Muyldermans S, Cooper P, Polman K. Electrochemical detection of Toxocara canis excretory-secretory antigens in children from rural communities in Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador: association between active infection and high eosinophilia. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:245. [PMID: 32398157 PMCID: PMC7216625 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04113-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The diagnosis of active Toxocara canis infections in humans is challenging. Larval stages of T. canis do not replicate in human tissues and disease may result from infection with a single T. canis larva. Recently, we developed a nanobody-based electrochemical magnetosensor assay with superior sensitivity to detect T. canis excretory-secretory (TES) antigens. Here, we evaluate the performance of the assay in children from an Ecuadorian birth cohort that followed children to five years of age. Methods Samples were selected based on the presence of peripheral blood eosinophilia and relative eosinophil counts. The samples were analyzed by the nanobody-based electrochemical magnetosensor assay, which utilizes a bivalent biotinylated nanobody as capturing agent on the surface of streptavidin pre-coated paramagnetic beads. Detection was performed by a different nanobody chemically labelled with horseradish peroxidase. Results Of 87 samples tested, 33 (38%) scored positive for TES antigen recognition by the electrochemical magnetosensor assay. The average concentration of TES antigen in serum was 2.1 ng/ml (SD = 1.1). The positive result in the electrochemical assay was associated with eosinophilia > 19% (P = 0.001). Parasitological data were available for 57 samples. There was no significant association between positivity by the electrochemical assay and the presence of other soil-transmitted helminth infections. Conclusions Our nanobody-based electrochemical assay provides highly sensitive quantification of TES antigens in serum and has potential as a valuable tool for the diagnosis of active human toxocariasis.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Morales-Yánez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium. .,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Unit of Medical Helminthology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Stanislav Trashin
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Idalia Sariego
- Institute of Tropical Medicine "Pedro Kourí", Havana, Cuba
| | - Clémentine Roucher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Unit of Medical Helminthology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Linda Paredis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Unit of Medical Helminthology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Martha Chico
- Fundación Ecuatoriana Para Investigación en Salud, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Serge Muyldermans
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Philip Cooper
- Fundación Ecuatoriana Para Investigación en Salud, Quito, Ecuador.,Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, de la Salud y la Vida, Universidad Internacional del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador.,Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Katja Polman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Unit of Medical Helminthology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Health Sciences, Section Infectious Diseases, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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17
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Lu Q, Li X, Zhao J, Zhu J, Luo Y, Duan H, Ji P, Wang K, Liu B, Wang X, Fan W, Sun Y, Zhou EM, Zhao Q. Nanobody‑horseradish peroxidase and -EGFP fusions as reagents to detect porcine parvovirus in the immunoassays. J Nanobiotechnology 2020; 18:7. [PMID: 31910833 PMCID: PMC6945459 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-019-0568-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Antibodies are an important reagent to determine the specificity and accuracy of diagnostic immunoassays for various diseases. However, traditional antibodies have several shortcomings due to their limited abundance, difficulty in permanent storage, and required use of a secondary antibody. Nanobodies, which are derived from single-chain camelid antibodies, can circumvent many of these limitations and, thus, appear to be a promising substitute. In the presented study, a sandwich ELISA-like immunoassay and direct fluorescent assay with high sensitivity, good specificity, and easy operation were the first time to develop for detecting porcine parvovirus (PPV). After screening PPV viral particles 2 (VP2) specific nanobodies, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fusions were derived from the nanobodies by recombinant technology. Finally, using the nanobody-HRP and -EGFP fusions as probes, the developed immunoassays demonstrate specific, sensitive, and rapid detection of PPV. Results In the study, five PPV-VP2 specific nanobodies screened from an immunised Bactrian camel were successfully expressed with the bacterial system and purified with a Ni–NTA column. Based on the reporter-nanobody platform, HRP and EGFP fusions were separately produced by transfection of HEK293T cells. A sandwich ELISA-like assay for detecting PPV in the samples was firstly developed using PPV-VP2-Nb19 as the capture antibody and PPV-VP2-Nb56-HRP fusions as the detection antibody. The assay showed 92.1% agreement with real-time PCR and can be universally used to surveil PPV infection in the pig flock. In addition, a direct fluorescent assay using PPV-VP2-Nb12-EGFP fusion as a probe was developed to detect PPV in ST cells. The assay showed 81.5% agreement with real-time PCR and can be used in laboratory tests. Conclusions For the first time, five PPV-VP2 specific nanobody-HRP and -EGFP fusions were produced as reagents for developing immunoassays. A sandwich ELISA-like immunoassay using PPV-VP2-Nb19 as the capture antibody and PPV-VP2-Nb56-HRP fusion as the detection antibody was the first time to develop for detecting PPV in different samples. Results showed that the immunoassay can be universally used to surveil PPV infection in pig flock. A direct fluorescent assay using PPV-VP2-Nb12-EGFP as a probe was also developed to detect PPV in ST cells. The two developed immunoassays eliminate the use of commercial secondary antibodies and shorten detection time. Meanwhile, both assays display great developmental prospect for further commercial production and application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qizhong Lu
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaoxuan Li
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiakai Zhao
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiahong Zhu
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuhang Luo
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hong Duan
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Pinpin Ji
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Kun Wang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Baoyuan Liu
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xueting Wang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wenqi Fan
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yani Sun
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - En-Min Zhou
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China. .,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Qin Zhao
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China. .,Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Veterinary Pharmacology and Diagnostic Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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